Types of affixes

The origin of suffixes

As to the origin of suffixes, there are two ways in which a suffix may come into existence: 1) the suffix was once an independent word but is no longer one; 2) the suffix has originated as such, usually as a result of secretion. Case 1) applies to a few native suffixes only. The suffixes - dem and hood are independent words still in OE, so the process where by a second-word becomes a suffix can be observed historically. An instance of case 2) is the suffix - ling which is simply the extended form of suffix - ing in words whose stem ended in - l.

Hall-way between second-words and suffixes are certain second elements which are still felt to be words though they are no longer used in isolation: - monger, wright and-wise exist only as second parts of suffixs. I have treated them as semi suffixes. The fact that a word is frequently used as the second element of a suffix gives us no right to call it a suffix. Thus the following are not suffixes: - caster (as in broadcaster, gamecaster, newscaster), fiend (as in the AE words cigarette fiend, opium-fiend, absinthe-fiend, cocaine - fiend etc…), craft (as in witchcraft, leechcrajt, prestaraft, statecraft, smith raft, mother craft), or - proof (as in bomb-, fire-, rain-, sound-, water-, hole kiss-, humor-etc. proof) which Jazzperson wrongly terms one.

The contact of English with various foreign languages has led to the adoption of countless foreign words. In the process, many derivative morphemes have also been introduced, suffixes as well as prefixes. As a consequence, we have many hybrid types of composites.

We have to distinguish between two basing groups. A foreign word is combined with a native affix, as in dear-ness, un-button. Just as the in production of a foreign word is an essentially uncomplicated matter, so is its combination with a native derivative element.

As no structural problem is involved in the use of a foreign lexical unit, it can be treated like native words. This is the reason why native prefixes and suffixes were added to French words almost immediately after the words had been introduced. Suffixes such as - ful, - less, ness were early used with French words so we find faithful, faithless, clearness and others recorded by 1300. The case is different with foreign affixes added to native words.

Here, the assimilation of a structural pattern is involved, not merely the adoption of a lexical unit. Before the foreign affix can be used, a foreign syntagma must have come to be familiar with speakers so that the pattern of analysis may be imitated and the dependent morpheme be used with native words. This is much more complicated. When it does happen, such formations are found much later than those of the first type. This is to be regarded as a general linguistic phenomenon. It explains why combinations of the types break-age, hindr-ance, yeoman-ry crop up much later and the less numerous. The early assimilation of - able is exceptional. Some foreign affixes, as - ance, - al (type arrival), ity have never become productive with native words.

The majority of foreign suffixes owe their existance to the reinterpretation of loons. When a foreign word comes to be analyzed as a composite, a syntagma, it may acquire derivative force. The syntagmatic character of a word there fore is a precondition for the development of a derivative morpheme

From landscape (which is Du landsdap) resulted scrape which is almost entirely used as the second element of suffixs, as in seascape 1799 and later earths cape, cloudscape, sands cape, mountains cape, moonscape, parks cape, skyscape, waterscape, house-scape, roads-cape, mindscape. Bottlegger attracted booklegger one trading in obscene books, foodlegger «illicit food-seller, meatlegger, tirelegger» (used at a time when things were rationed in US).

The word hierarchy attracted squir(e) archy 1804, which does not, however, mean that there is a suffix - arohy. The attraction is prob due to the rime only, and other coinages have not been made.

Another AE suffix is-eteria with meaning «shop, store, establishment». The starting-point is prob. Mexican Spanish cafeteria which passed into American English (first used about 1898).

As it was immediately analyzable in American English, with the first element interpreted as an allomorph of [kafi] it attected a good number of words (chiefly since 1930). Mencken has about 50 words, such as basketeria, caketeria, candyteria, cleaneteria, luncheteria, drygoodsteria, drugteria, fruiteria, shoeteria, chccolateria, furnitureteria. The original implication was «place where articles are sold on the self-service plant» (so in the recent coinage gas-a-teria, Life International). The only common word, however, is cafeteria, stressed as indicated.

The process of secretion requires some more comment. The basic principle is that of re-interpretation: but there are several ways in which re-interpretation occurs.

1). A suffix may be analyzed by the general speaker as having two contituent elements, the basis as an independent morpheme and the suffix as a derivative element. This is the case of the preceding types lemonade and land-scape. This process of direct re-interpretation is the form secretion commonly assumes.

2). A suffix is not made up of two constituent elements as far as the general speaker is concerned. If aristocracy, democracy, plutocracy yield more or less jocular words such as landocracy, mobocracy, cottoncracy, this is due to a meeting and blending of two heterogeneous structural systems: a certain structural element of one linguistic system is isolated and introduced into another linguistic system. The speaker with a knowledge of Greek isolates - ocracy «rule» in a series of 6 reek-coined words and introduces it as a derivative element into the structural system of English. But dependent structural elements are tied up with certain morphologic conditions of the linguistic system to which they belong and cannot there fore be naturally transplanted, unlike words, which are independent lexical elements, not subject to any specific morphological conditions. Such coinages are felt to be hybrids by the word-coiner himself, so the process is not used for serious purposes as a rule. Admittance of such foreign derivative elements is also impeded by the fact that they bear no resemblance to any morpheme with which the hearer of the hybrid suffix is familiar. The linguistic situation is different with foreign-coined words of which one element is immediately associated with a morpheme of the hearers language. Words like barometer, thermometer are automatically connected with the independent word mater whose unstressed allomorph the words contain. This explains the rise and currency of speedometer, cream ometer and quite recent drunkometer.

But otherwise, hybrid coinages of this derivative pattern will always have a limited range of currency or the tinge of faketiousness, as bumpology, bumposopher (both jocular from hump «protuberance on the cranium as the sign of special mental faculies»), storiology, weather logy, dollolaty a. o. Parallel to the above words in - ocracy are such in - ocrat, as mobocrat bancrat bankocrat. Very similar to the case of barometer / speed omoter is that of the American suffix - fest. Fom the German words Sincerest and Turn fest, which were first used in the early 50 s in U.S. a series of other words were derived, such as smoke fest, walkfest, eatfest, stuntfest, bookfest, gabfest. The element - fest was obviously interpreted as the allomorph of feast. The word cavalcade was re-interpreted as containing the element caval-» horse» and the suffix-cade «parade» and attracted such coining as aerocade, aquacade (on a Latin basis of coining), autocade, camelcade, motorcade (on a native basis of coining), recent words which may not stand the test of time. From the word panorama the characteristic ending-rama was secreted with the meaning «pageant, show» and has recently led to such words as cinerama, motorama, autorama.

Sometimes ignorant but pretentious people take to coining words, re-interpreting foreign word in their own way. They vaguely feel that there is some characteristic termination in a 6 reek or Latin word which they then attach to some English basis to give the c.b.a «learned» tinge. As a result, we get barbarisms in-athon, coined after Marathon, such as danceathon, swimathon etg, in-thorium, such as corsetorium, lubritorium etc.

Thus, the rise of suffix illustrated by types aristocracy/ landocracy, barometer/ speedometer and others treated in the preceding passage can stay out pf accounted for suffixal derivation.

There is yet a third way in which suffixes may arise. Words of apparently only one constituent element may develop derivative morphemes. If we take such a word as hamburger, we observe that it has attracted other coining like cheeseburger, bufburger, fishburger. The analysis of the word cannot be, as one may feel tempted to assume, that of ham and burger as there is no ham in the humburger. So the word cheeseburger has not arisen from re-interpretation. What has taken place is a shortening of the morpheme hamburger into a fore-clipped - burger, this part being taken as representative of the semantic elements contained in hamburger. The suffix cheeseburger there fore is a clipped word for non-existent cheese hamburger. Parallel to - burger words are such in - furture, as shrimpfurder, krautfurter, chicenfurter. In election campaign words such as Hoovercrat, Willkiecrat, - crat was short for democrat. The word telegram 1852 gave rise to cablegram, radiogram, pidgeongram, lettergram where - gram is short for telegram/ Tnr diminutive suffix - ling prginated in the same way. Wolfling «young wolf» is a blend pf wol fand, young-ling «young animal»

Nominal and verbal suffixes

In ME there are nominal and verbal suffixes. The suffixs - fold, - most and - ward form words which are used both as adjectives and adverbs.

The meaning of a suffix is conditioned by the particular semantic character of the basis to which the suffix is attached, also by the linguistic circumstances in which the coinage is made. In general parlance, a fiver is a bill of five (dollars or pounds), in crikret, jargon it is a hit for five, in school life it may denote a boy who always scrapes through with a five. A greening is a green variety of apple or pear, but a whiting is a white variety of fish. For other possibilities see - er and - ing, for instance. Some concepts are apt to be represented by suffixes in many languages as those of condition (state, quality etc), appurtenance, collectivity, endearment agent a.o, but theoretically there is no telling what concept may not develop to find expression in a suffix. French has a suffix - ier (type pommier) to denote fruit trees, there I - ile for the idea of stable for demos tic animals, 0.6 has a suffix - it is (type nephritis) meaning disease. These have no parallels in English, or in German either. But no intrinsic linguistic principle is involved in the absence of such morphemes. The rise of new suffix in English goes to corroborate this.

A new words are needed with regard to adverbal derivatives. Adeverbal derivative is not fundamentally different from a cpd whose first member is a verb stem, so as in the case of denominal suffixes, a great number of meanings are possible. In practice, however, the possibilities are much restricted. Deverbal suffixes express grammatical functions than semantic concepts, and the usual implications are «act, fact, instance of…» (arrival, quidanse, warning), sometimes «state of…» (starvation, bewilderment), «agent» (personal or impersonal: baker, eraser, disinfectant), «personal object» (direct or indirect, only with - ee, transferee, draftee), «object of result» (breakade, savings), «plase» (settlement, brewery, lodgings). Similar considerations apply to derivation by a zero morpheme (pickpocket, blackaut, look).

Prefixing on a Neo-Latin basis of coining

There are many prefixes, chiefly used in learned words or in scientific terminology, which have come into the language through borrowing from Modern Latin, as ante-, extra-, intra-/ meta, para - etc. The practice of word coining with there particles begins in the 16th century, but really develops with the progress of modern science only, i.e. in the 18th and esp the 19th century. With these particles there is a practical difficulty. They may represent 1) such elements as are prefixes (in the above meaning) in Latin or 6 reek, as a - (acaudal etc.), semi - (semi-annual), 2) such elements as exist as prepositions or particles with an independent word existence, as intra, circum / hyper, para, 3) such as are the stems of full words in Latin or 6 reek, as multi-, omni-/ astro-, hydro.

This last group is usually termed combining forms (OED Webster). In principle, the three groups are on the same footing from the point of view of English wf, as they represent loan elements in English with no independent existence as words. That macro-, micro - a. o. should be termed combining from while hyper-, hypro-, intro-, intra - a. o. are called prefixes by the OED, is by no means justified.

Only such pts as are prefixed to fool English words of generals, learned, scientific or technical character can be termed prefixes. Hyper-in hypersensitive is a prefix, but hyper - in hypertrophy is not, as-trophy is no word.

We cannot, however, under take to deal with all the prepositive elements occurring in English. Such elements as astro-, electro-, galato-, hepato-, oscheo - and countless others which are used in scientific or technical terminology have not been treated in this book. They offer a purely dictionary interest in any case. In the main, only those pts howe been considered that fall under the above groups 1) and 2) But we have also in duded a few prefixes which lie outside this scope, as prfs denoting number (poly-, multi-), the pronominal stem auto, which is used with many words of general character, and pts which are type - forming with English words of wider currency (as crypto-, neo-, pseudo-).

There is often competition between prefixes as there is between suffixes and in dependent words: over - and out - sometimes overlap, there is overlapping between un - (negative) and in-, un - (reversative), dis - and de-, between ante and pre-, super - and trans-, super - and supra.

The conceptual relations underlying prefixed words

A pre-particle or prefix combination may be based on three different conceptual patterns and accordingly present the prefixing three functional aspects: 1) the prefix has adjectival force (with sbs, as in anteroom, archbishop, co-hostess, ex-king); 2) the prefix has adverbial force (with adjectives and verbs, as in unconscious, hypersensitive, informal, overanxious/ unroll, revrite, mislay); 3) the prefix has prepositional force (as in prewar years, postgraduate studies, antiaircraft gun) afire, aflutter/anti-Nazi, afternoon/encage: sbs and vbs must be considered syntagmas with a zero determinate, the suffixs anti-Nazi, afternoon, encage being the respective determinants).

The preceding conceptual patterns are important in the determination of the stress: while a suffix. Based on an adjunct (primary relation tends to have two heavy stresses (as in arch - enemy)) or may even have the main stress on the prefix (as in subway), the prf. Has not more than a full middle stress in the other types.

The phonemic status of prefixes

The semi-independent, word-like status of prefixes also appears from their treatment in regard to stress. With the exception of regularly unstressed a - (as in afire, aflutter), be - (as in befriend), and em-, en - (as in emplace, encage) all prefixes have stress. To illustrate this important point a comparison with non-composite words of similar phonetic structure will be useful. If we compare the words re-full and repeat, morphemic re- / ri / in refill is basically characterized by presence of stress whereas non-morphemic re - [ri] is basically characterized by absence of stress. This is proved by the fact that under certain phonetically unpredictable circumstances, the phonemic stress of re-in re-full, though basically a middle stress, can take the form of heavy stress where as phonemic absence of stress can never rise to presence of stress. They refilled the tank may become they refilled the tank (for the sake of contrast) or they refilled the tank (for emphasis), but no such shift is conceivable for mono-morphemic repeat, incite, prefer etc. Which invariably maintain the pattern no stress/heavy stress.



4. USE OF AFFIXES

Simply put, an affix is a word element of English grammar used to alter the meaning or form of a word and comes in the form of either a prefix or a suffix. Prefixes include examples like "un-" "self-" and "re-" while suffixes come in the form of ending elements like "-hood" "-ing" or "-ed." While prefixes typically maintain the word class (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) of the word it's modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form entirely, as is the case with "exploration" compared to "explore" or "highlighter" compared to "highlight."

Further, one can use multiple iterations of the same affixation to modify a word like grandmother to mean an entirely different person -- as in "great-great grandmother," who would be your mother's mother's mother's mother or a "re-re-re-make of a film" wherein this film would be the fourth iteration of its kind.

The same can be applied to different prefixes and suffixes being used on the same word. For instance, the word nation means a country, but national means "of a nation," nationalize means "to make part of a nation," and "denationalization" means "the process of making something no longer part of a nation." This can continue ad nauseam, but becomes increasingly odd -- especially in spoken rhetoric -- the more affixes one uses on the same base word.

4.1 USE OF AFFIXES ACCORDING TO ITS POSITIONAL CATEGORY

Affixes are divided into many categories, depending on their position with reference to the stem. Prefix and suffix are extremely common terms. Infix and circumfixare less so, as they are not important in European languages. The other terms are uncommon.

Prefix and suffix may be subsumed under the term adfix, in contrast to infix.

When marking text for interlinear glossing, as in the third column in the chart above. Simple affixes such as prefixes and suffixes are separated from the stem with hyphens. Affixes which disrupt the stem, or which themselves are discontinuous, are often marked off with angle brackets. Reduplication is often shown with a tilde. Affixes which cannot be segmented are marked with a back slash.

Categories of affixes

Affix	Example	Schema	Description
Prefix	un-do	prefix-stem	Appears before the stem
Suffix/postfix	look-ing	stem-suffix	Appears after the stem
Suffixoid[1]/semi-suffix[2]	cat-like	stem-suffixoid	Appears after the stem, but is only partially bound to it
Infix	Abso?bloody?lutely	st?infix?em	Appears within a stem -- common in Borneo-Philippines languages
Circumfix	en?light?en	circumfix?stem?circumfix	One portion appears before the stem, the other after
Interfix	speed-o-meter	stema-interfix-stemb	Links two stems together in a compound
Duplifix	money~shmoney	stem~duplifix	Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem (may occur before, after, or within the stem)
Transfix	Maltese: k?i?t?e?b "he wrote" (compare root ktb "write")	s?transfix?te?transfix?m	A discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stem
Simulfix	mouse > mice	stem\simulfix	Changes a segment of a stem
Suprafix	produce (noun) produce (verb)	stem\suprafix	Changes a suprasegmental feature of a stem
Disfix	Alabama: tipli "break up" (compare root tipasli "break")	st?disfix?m	The elision of a portion of a stem

EXAMPLES

Prefix	Meaning	Example	Comments
a-	"not"	asymmetric, "not symmetric"	a- before consonants, an- before vowels
acro-	"high"	acrophobia, "fear of heights" (more)
allo-	"other"	allotransplantation, "transplant of tissue from another person" (more)
alter-	"at least secondary"	alter ego, "an at least secondary personality" (more)
an-	"not/without"	anaerobic, "not requiring air to live"	a- before consonants, an- before vowels
ante-	"before"	antebellum, "before a war"
anti-	"against"	anti-inflammatory, "against inflammation" (more)
auto-	"self"	automobile, "moves itself" (more)
bi-	"two"	bicentennial, "consisting of or occurring every two centuries" binomial, "two terms"	See number prefixes in English
co-	"together"	cooperation, "working together"
contra-	"against"	contraindication, "against indication" (more)
counter-	"against"	countermeasure, "action against" (more)
de-	"negative, remove"	deactivate, "stop from working"
di-	"two"	diatomic, "two atoms" dipole, "two poles"	See number prefixes in English
dis-	"negative, remove"	disappear, "vanish" (more)
down-	"down"; "reduce"	downshift, "shift to a lower gear" downregulation, "regulation toward lessened expression" (more)
dys-	"negative, badly, wrongly"	dysfunction, "bad function" (more)
epi-	"on, above"	epidural, "outside the dura mater" (more)
extra-	"outside"	extracellular, "outside a cell" (more)
fore-	"before"	foresight, "seeing beforehand" (more)
hemi-	"half"	hemisphere, "half of a sphere" (more)	See number prefixes in English
hexa-	"six"	hexagon, "six-sided polygon" (more)	See number prefixes in English
hyper-	"a lot"; "too much"	hypercalcemia, "too much calcium in the blood" (more)	See hyper
hypo-	"a little"; "not enough"	hypokalemia, "not enough potassium in the blood" (more)
ig-	"not"	ignoble, "not noble" ignorant, (from roots meaning) "not knowing" (more)	ig- (before gn- or n-), il- (before l-), im- (before b-, m-, or p-), in- (before most letters), or ir- (before r-)
il-	"not"	illegal, "not legal" (more)	ig- (before gn- or n-), il- (before l-), im- (before b-, m-, or p-), in- (before most letters), or ir- (before r-)
im-	"not"	imbalance, "lack of balance" (more)	ig- (before gn- or n-), il- (before l-), im- (before b-, m-, or p-), in- (before most letters), or ir- (before r-)
in-	"not"	inactive, "not active"	ig- (before gn- or n-), il- (before l-), im- (before b-, m-, or p-), in- (before most letters), or ir- (before r-)
infra-	"below"	infrared, "below red on the spectrum" (more)
inter-	"between"	interobserver, "between observers" (more)
intra-	"within"	intracellular, "inside a cell" (more)
ir-	"not"	irregular, "not regular" (more)	ig- (before gn- or n-), il- (before l-), im- (before b-, m-, or p-), in- (before most letters), or ir- (before r-)
macro-	"large-scale"	macroeconomics, "workings of entire economies" (more)
mal-	"bad", "wrong"	malocclusion, "bad occlusion" (more)
maxi-	"big", "as big as possible"	maxi-single, "single with extras" (more)
meso-	"middle"	mesoamerican, "middle of the Americas" (more)
meta-	"self-referential"	metadata, "data that provides information about other data" (more)
micro-	"small-scale"	micrometer, "small-measurement instrument" (more)
mid-	"middle"	midportion, "middle part" (more)
mini-	"small"	miniature, "small"; "smaller version" (more)
mis-	"bad", "wrong"	misspelling, "incorrect spelling" (more)
mono-	"one"	monotheism, "belief in one god" (more)	See number prefixes in English
multi-	"many", "more than one"	multiplex, "many signals in one circuit" (more)
non-	"no", "not"	nonstop, "without stopping" (more)
octo-	"eight"	octopus, "eight-footed" (more)	See number prefixes in English
over-	"excess", "too much"; "on top"	overexpression, "too much expression" overcoat, "outer coat" (more)
pan-	"all"	pancytopenia, "low counts across all cell types" pan-American, "involving all of the Americas" (more)	Sometimes "all-" is used, especially in Asian English, where All-Union was a standard translation of the Russian word meaning "pan-USSR" or "USSR-wide", and "All-India" is a similar standard term in India, comparable to words such as national, nationwide, or federal (in the case of federations).
para-	"beside"; "beyond"; "related to"; "altered"	paranormal, "beyond the normal" paresthesia, "altered sensation" paramilitary, "military-like" (more)
penta-	"five"	pentateuch, "the five books of Moses" (more)	See number prefixes in English
per-	"through"; "throughout"	percutaneous, "through the skin" (more)
peri-	"around"	pericardial, "around the heart" (more)
poly-	"many"	polyglot, "many languages" (more)
post-	"after"	postoperative, "after surgery" (more)
pre-	"before"; "already"	preassembled, "already built" (more)
pro-	"in favor of"	pro-science, "in favor of science" (more)
proto-	"first"; "primitive"; "precursor"	Proto-Indo-European, "precursor of Indo-European" (more)
pseudo-	"false", "specious"	pseudonym, "fake name" (more)
quadri-	"four"	quadrilateral, "four-sided" (more)	See number prefixes in English
quasi-	"somewhat", "resembling"	quasiparticulate, "resembling particles" (more)
re-	"again"	reestablish, "establish again" (more)
self-	"[acting on or by] oneself"	self-cleaning, "cleans itself" (more)	By normative convention, always hyphenated (except for a few multiprefix compounds such as unselfconscious)
semi-	"partial"; "somewhat"; "half"	semiarid, "somewhat arid" (more)	See number prefixes in English
sub-	"below"	subzero, "below zero" (more)
super-	"above"; "more than"; "great"	supermarket, "big market" (more)
supra-	"above"	supraorbital, "above the eye sockets" (more)
tetra-	"four"	tetravalent, "four valence electrons" (more)	See number prefixes in English
trans-	"across"; "connecting"	transatlantic, "across the Atlantic Ocean" (more)
tri-	"three"	tripartite, "three parts" (more)
ultra-	"beyond"; "extremely"	ultraviolet, "beyond violet on the spectrum" (more)
un-	"not"; "remove"; "opposite"	unopened, "not opened" (more)
under-	"beneath"; "not enough"	underexposure, "not enough exposure" (more)
up-	"up"; "increase"	upshift, "shift to a higher gear" upregulation, "regulation toward increased expression" (more)
xeno-	"foreign"	xenophobia, "fear of strangers or foreigners" xenotransplantation, "transplant from another species" (more)

Suffixes

Inflectional suffixes changes the grammatical properties of a word within its syntactic category. :

I was hoping the cloth wouldn't fade, but it has faded quite a bit.

the suffix -ed inflects the root-word fade to indicate past tense.

Inflectional suffixes do not change the word class of the word after the inflection.[5] Inflectional suffixes in Modern English include:

· -s third person singular present

· -ed past tense

· -t past tense

· -ing progressive/continuous

· -en past participle

· -s plural

· -en plural (irregular)

· -er comparative

· -est superlative

Derivation[edit]

Derivational suffixes can be divided into two categories: class-changing derivation and class-maintaining derivation.[6] In English, they include

· -ise/-ize (usually changes nouns into verbs)

· -fy (usually changes nouns into verbs)

· -ly (usually changes adjectives into adverbs)

· -ful (usually changes nouns into adjectives)

· -able/-ible (usually changes verbs into adjectives)

· -hood (usually class-maintaining, with the word class remaining a noun)

· -ess (usually class-maintaining, with the word class remaining a noun)

· -ness (usually changes adjectives into nouns)

· -less (usually changes nouns into adjectives)

· -ism (usually class-maintaining, with the word class remaining a noun)

· -ment (usually changes verbs into nouns)

· -ist (usually class-maintaining, with the word class remaining a noun)

· -al (usually changes nouns into adjectives)

· -ish (usually changes nouns into adjectives/ class-maintaining, with the word class remaining an adjective)

· -ity (usually changes adjectives into nouns)

· -tion (usually changes verbs into noun)

· -logy/-ology (usually class-maintaining, with the word class remaining a noun)

· -ant (usually changes verbs into nouns, often referring to a human agent)

· -oid

· -like

Infix- English has almost no true infixes (as opposed to tmesis), and those it does have are marginal. A few are heard in colloquial speech, and a few more are found in technical terminology.

Chemical nomenclature includes the infixes ?pe?, signifying complete hydrogenation (from piperidine), and ?et? (from ethyl), signifying the ethyl radical C2H5. Thus from the existing word picoline is derived pipecoline, and from lutidine is derived lupetidine; from phenidine and xanthoxylin are derived phenetidine and xanthoxyletin.

None of the following are recognized in standard English.

· The infix iz or izn is characteristic of hip-hop slang, for example hizouse for house and shiznit for shit. Infixes also occur in some language games.

· The ma infix, whose location in the word is described in Yu (2004), gives a word an ironic pseudo-sophistication, as in sophistimacated, saxomaphone, and edumacation. This exists as a slang phenomenon.

The use of 'expletive infixes' such as fucking and bloody, which are words rather than affixes, is known as tmesis.

Duplifix- interface between phonology and morphology.

The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times.[1] Pingelapese has both reduplication and triplication.

Basic verb	Reduplication	Triplication
k?ul 'to sing'	k?uk?ul 'singing'	k?uk?uk?ul 'still singing'
mejr 'to sleep'	mejmejr 'sleeping'	mejmejmejr 'still sleeping'

(Rehg 1981)

Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. Ewe, Shipibo, Twi, Mokilese, Min Nan (Hokkien), Stau (Gates 2016).

Sometimes gemination (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.

Full and partial reduplication[edit]

Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from reflexive forms by total reduplication:

[?in]	'ourselves'	>	[?in?in]	'we (to) us'	(?in-?in)
[ja?]	'themselves'	>	[ja?ja?]	'they (to) them'	(ja?-ja?)	(Watters 2002)

Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" aspect formation:

[k???м?]	'to capsize'	>	[k???м?k????]	'likely to capsize'	(k???м?-k????)
[q?йl]	'to speak'	>	[q?йlq?el]	'talkative'	(q?йl-q?el)	(Shaw 2004)

Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) sequence of a base, i.e. base+CVC:

kagir	'belt'	>	kagirgir	'to wear a belt'	(kagir-gir)
takin	'sock'	>	takinkin	'to wear socks'	(takin-kin)	(Moravsik 1978)

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu example below:

Base verb	Full reduplication	Partial reduplication
mahuta 'to sleep'	mahutamahuta 'to sleep constantly'	mamahuta 'to sleep (plural)'
	(mahuta-mahuta)	(ma-mahuta)

Reduplicant position[edit]

Reduplication may be initial (i.e. prefixal), final (i.e. suffixal), or internal (i.e. infixal), e.g.

Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix):

[?u?ab]	'afternoon'	>	[?u?u?ab]	'late afternoon'	(?u-?u?ab)
[?a?aj]	'a long time'	>	[?a?a?aj]	'a long time (in years)'	(?a-?a?aj)	(Healey 1960)

Final reduplication in Dakota (-CCV suffix):

[hгska]	'tall (singular)'	>	[hгskaska]	'tall (plural)'	(hгska-ska)
[wa?te]	'good (singular)'	>	[wa?te?te]	'good (plural)'	(wa?te-?te)	(Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002)

Internal reduplication in Samoan (-CV- infix):

savali	'he/she walks' (singular)	>	savavali	'they walk' (plural)	(sa-va-vali)
alofa	'he/she loves' (singular)	>	alolofa	'they love' (plural)	(a-lo-lofa)	(Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984)
le tamaloa	'the man' (singular)[2]	>	tamaloloa	'men' (plural)	(tama-lo-loa)

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

Interfix- In English, when technical compound words are formed from non-technical roots, an -o- interfix is sometimes used, as o has come to be seen as a connecting vowel (speed-o-meter, mile-o-meter) by analogy to tacho-meter, odo-meter, compounds of which the first part comes from an Ancient Greek noun

Simulfix- Examples of simulfixes in English are generally considered irregularities, all of which left over from pluralization rules that existed before the Great Vowel Shift. They include:

· man > men, woman > women

· louse > lice, mouse > mice

· foot > feet, tooth > teeth



Conclusion

Affixation is the formation of words with the help of derivational affixes. Affixation is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation. Ex. if a prefix «dis» is added to the stem «like» (dislike) or suffix «ful» to «law» (lawful) we say a word is built by an affixation. Derivational morphemes added before the stem of a word are called prefixes (Ex. un+ like) and the derivational morphemes added after the stem of the word are called suffixes (hand+ ful). Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the stem meaning i. e. the prefixed derivative mostly belongs to the same part of speech. Ex. like (v.) - dislike (v.).kind (adj.) - unkind (adj.) but suffixes transfer words to a different part of speech, ex. teach (v.) - teacher (n.). But new investigations into the problem of prefixation in English showed interesting results. It appears that the traditional opinion, current among linguists that prefixes modify only the lexical meaning of words without changing the part of speech is not quite correct. In English there are about 25 prefixes which can transfer words to a different part of speech. Ex. - head (n) - behead (v), bus(n) - debus(v), brown (adj) - embrown(u), title(n) - entitle(v), large (adj). - enlarge (v), camp(n). - encamp(u), war(n). - prewar (adj). If it is so we can say that there is no functional difference between suffixes and prefixes. Besides there are linguists1 who treat prefixes as a part of word-composition. They think that a prefix has.he same function as the first component of a compound word. Other linguists2 consider prefixes as derivational affixes which differ essentially from root-morphemes and stems. From the point of view of their origin affixes may be native and borrowed. The suffixes-ness, - ish, - dom, - ful, - less, - ship and prefixes be-, mis-, un-, fore-, etc are of native origin. But the affixes - able, - ment, - ation, - ism, - ist, re-, anti-, dis-, etc are of borrowed origin. They came from the Greek, Latin and French languages. Many of the suffixes and prefixes of native origin were independent words. In the course of time they have lost their independence and turned into derivational affixes. Ex. - dom, - hood. /O.E. had - state, rank, - dom (dom condemn, - ship has developed from noun «scipe» (meaning: state); the adjective forming suffix «-ly» has developed from the noun «lic» (body, shape). The prefixes out-, under-, over etc also have developed out of independent words.

Another problem of the study of affixes is homonymic affixes. Homonymic affixes are affixes which have the same sound form, spelling but different meanings and they are added to different parts of speech.

Ex. ful (1) forms adjectives from a noun: love (v) - loveful (adj/, man (n), - manful (adj).

- ful (2) forms adjective from a verb: forget (v.) - forgetful, (adj) thank (v.) - thankful (adj).

- ly(l) added to an adjective stem is homonymous to the adjective forming suffix - ly(2) which is added to a noun stem. Ex. quickly, slowly, and lovely, friendly.

The verb suffix-en (1) added to a noun and adjective stem is homonymous to the adjective forming suffix - en (2) which is added to a noun stem. Ex. to strengthen, to soften, and wooden, golden.

The prefix un - (l) added to a noun and a verb stem is homonymous to the prefix un - (2) which is added to an adj¬ective stem. Ex. unshoe, unbind, unfair, untrue.

In the course of the history of English as a result of borrowings there appeared many synonymous affixes in the language. Ex. the suffixes - er, - or, - ist, - ent, - ant, - eer, - ian, - man, - ee, - ess form synonymous affixes denoting the meaning «agent». Having the meaning of negation the prefixes un-, in-, non-, dis-, rnis - form synonymic group of prefixes. It is interesting to point out that the synonymous affixes help us to reveal different lexico-semantic groupings of words. Ex. the words formed by the suffixes - man, - er, - or, - ian, - ee, - eer, - ent, ant etc. belong to the lexico-semantic groupings of words denoting «doer of the action». The affixes may also undergo semantic changes, they may be polysemantic. Ex. the noun forming suffix «er» has the following meanings:

1) persons following some special trade and profession (driver, teacher, hunter); 2) persons doing a certain action at the moment in question (packer, chooser, giver); 3) tools (blotter, atomizer, boiler, transmitter).

2) The adjective forming suffix «-y» also has several meanings:

3) composed of, full of (bony, stony)

4) characterized by (rainy, cloudy)

5) having the character of resembling what the stem denotes (inky, bushy etc.

Thus, affixes have different characteristic features.

The Comparative analysis of the English language with other languages showed that English is not so rich in suffixes as, for example, the Uzbek language. The total number of suffixes is 67 in English but the Uzbek suffixes are 171 and, vice versa, prefixation is more typical to the English language than Uzbek

But recent investigations prove that there are no productive and non-productive affixes because each affix plays a certain role in wordformation. There are only affixes with different degrees of productivity, besides that productivity of affixes should not be mixed up with their frequency of occurence in speech. Frequency of affixes is characterised by the occurence of an affix in a great number of words. But productivity is the ability of a given suffix or prefix to make new words. An affix may be frequent but not productive, ex, the suffix «-ive» is very frequent but non-productive

Some linguists distinguish between two types of prefixes:

1) those which are like functional words (such as prepositions or adverbs) (ex. out-, over-, up - .)

2) those which are not correlated with any independent words, (ex. un-, dis-, re-, mis-, etc).

Prefixes out-, over-, up-, under-, etc are considered as semibound morphemes. However, this view is doubtful because these prefixes are quite frequent in speech and like other derivational affixes have a generalized meaning. They have no grammatical meaning like the independent words. We think they are bound morphemes and should be regarded as homonyms of the corresponding independent words, ex. the prefix «out-» in outdoor, outcome, outbreak etc is homonymous to the preposition «out» in «out of door» and the adverb «out» in «He went out».

Prefixes and suffixes may be classified according to their meaning.

1) prefixes of negative meaning such as; de-, non-, un - in-, ir-, il-, im-, dis - (ex. defeat, decentralize, disappear, impossible, discomfort etc); 2) prefixes, denoting space and time relations: after, under-, for-, pre-, post-, over-, super - (ex, prehistory, postposition, superstructure, overspread, after¬noon, forefather); 3) prefixes denoting relation of an action such as: re - (ex. reread, remake).

2) Like prefixes the suffixes are also classified according to their meaning:

3) the agent suffixes: - er, - or, - ist, - ee etc. (baker, sailor, typist, employee); 2) appurtenance: - an, - ian, - ese (Arabian, Russian, Chinese, Japanese); 3) collectivity: - age, - dom, - hood, - ery (peasantry, marriage, kingdom, childhood); 4) dimi-nutiveness: - let, - ock, - ie etc (birdie, cloudlet, hillock); 5) quan-titativeness1: - ful, - ous, - y, - ive, - ly, - some.



List of sources

1. 1.https://sites.google.com/site/grammarengagement/background-and-theory

2. http://thinkingout.ru/lex-bilet9.php

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix

4. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-affixation-words-1688976

5. http://www.affixes.org/typesofaffix.html



Bibliography

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3. Arnold I.V. The English Word M. High School 1986 pp. 143-149

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14. Sheard, John. The Words we Use. N.Y., 1954.p.

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