Stylistic translational issues within English-speaking political texts

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Sumy State University

Stylistic translational issues within English-speaking political texts

PhD, Associate Professor O. Shumenko

Student H. Aleksandrova

Annotation

This article studies stylistic issues of translation in the frame of English-speaking political discourse. The key difference between stylistic devices and expressive means, tropes and figures of speech is defined. The most problematic aspects of rendering stylistic tools in political texts are distinguished. Allusions as a translational challenge of rendering nationally biased units in the target language are studied. The translational methods and means within the given political texts are characterized and the chosen equivalents in the target language are researched. The efficient variants of rendering metaphors, euphemisms, neologisms, cliches and abbreviations within Ukrainian are examined.

Keywords: expressive means, stylistic devices, political discourse, tropes, figures of speech, allusions, quotations.

Анотація

У статті досліджуються стилістичні проблеми перекладу англомовних політичних текстів. Розмежовано різницю між стилістичними прийомами та експресивними засобами, тропами та фігурами мови. Розглянуто найскладніші аспекти передачі стилістичних засобів в рамках політичного дискурсу. Досліджено алюзії як проблемні стилістичні засоби передачі реалій в цільовій мові. В роботі охарактеризовано способи та засоби перекладу в контексті політичних текстів, а також досліджено обрані еквіваленти в цільовій мові. Наведено релевантні варіанти передачі метафор, евфемізмів, неологізмів, кліше та абревіатур в українській мові.

Ключові слова: експресивні засоби, стилістичні прийоми, політичний дискурс, тропи, фігури мови, алюзії, цитування.

Аннотация

В этой статье исследуются стилистические проблемы перевода англоязычных политических текстов. Разграничены стилистические приемы и экспрессивные средства, тропы и фигуры речи. Рассмотрены крайне сложные аспекты передачи стилистических средств в рамках политического дискурса. Исследованы аллюзии как проблематические стилистические средства передачи реалий в языке перевода. В работе охарактеризованы способы и средства перевода в контексте политических текстов, а также исследованы подобранные эквиваленты в языке перевода. Приведены релевантные варианты передачи метафор, эвфемизмов, неологизмов, клише и аббревиатур в украинском языке.

Ключевые слова: экспрессивные средства, стилистические приемы, политический дискурс, тропы, фигуры речи, аллюзии, цитирования.

On the modem stage of the social development the attention of both the linguists and the researchers within other interdisciplinary sciences - rhetoric, political sciences, cultural studies, psychology, sociological linguistics - is drawn to the political debates and speeches which appear to be the genres of the political texts. Such an excessive attention to the politicians' speeches arises from the main aims of political communication: acquisition and retention of power. While, as to R. Jakobson, the communicational functions - thus, political as well - are 1) informing the addressees (informative, or communicative function), 2) galvanizing them to the action (motivational function), 3) addressing to their feelings (motive function), 4) explaining unknown terms (metalinguistic function), and also 5) coming into contact with audience (phatic function), the language means used by statesmen demand a thorough studying. In most cases the speakers try to influence the addresses' emotions, for that reasons the researchers give an eye to the stylistic devices and expressive means, which addressers (rhetoricians) apply to. Considering the abovementioned within the given article the reader may get familiar with translational issues of political discourse caused by means of expressiveness.

Today there are known many works on studying stylistic tools and their translation methods, proposed by such linguists as G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, P. Newmark, Teun A. van Dijk, Ya.Y. Retsker, І. Р. Galperin, V. N. Komissarov, L. P. Yefimov, T. A. Kazakova, А. A. Alekseiev, V. S. Vinogradov and others.

The object of the study is to define stylistic translational issues within English-speaking political texts. The subject matter of the study appears to be English-speaking political texts. The aim is to examine stylistic tools causing difficulties in the translational process - in frame of political discourse - from English into Ukrainian. The given aim is succeeded by fulfilling the following assignments: 1) to identify stylistic translational issues within English-speaking political discourse; 2) to provide examples of translation to certain stylistic tools, proposed by respected translators; 3) to get familiar with pieces of advice from the translators practicing in the sphere of political discourse.

Results of the research prove useful to future translators and interpreters, which will be able to get familiar with translational methods concerning challenging moments in the political texts, and manage to develop skills of quick and effective choice of equivalents in the target language (TL). The article will be useful for students studying stylistics, introduction to translation and interpretation studies, cultural studies, lexicology and others.

To the theory of translation contributed greatly G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, which follow the cognitive approach to the research of metaphor. The types of metaphors and its classification were researched and proposed by practitioner P. Newmark. Still the lexis of the language is quickly changed and fresh metaphors and neologisms of the source language (SL) do not have adequate correspondence in the TL. So a competent and adequate translation of stylistically marked speeches demands great background knowledge. Solution of such issues in the study is achieved by use of descriptive and comparative method of research.

Results of the research. Due to vague bounds between various sciences - for instance, between poetics, rhetoric and linguistics - there is substitution of notions in defining such concepts as tropes, figures of speech, expressive means (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs). K. Lototska - on the ground of works written by I.R. Galperin - offers quite understandable explanations of the given terms [2; p.26-28]. From her point of view expressive means are figures of speech, i.e. they are types of arrangement of sounds, words and sentences. And each language level includes its own figures of speech - phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical EMs. Stylistic devices appear to be tropes. They are means of language figurative usage and are commonly expressed by a word or a phrase. To the EMs one may refer rhetoric question, inversion, parceling, ellipsis, repetition, antithesis, parallel constructions. And the most widespread SDs considered as metaphor, metonymy, personification, epithet, antonomasia [5; p106]. But even the same stylistic tool may be both simultaneously. There is given a bright example, in which we may observe epithet as an EM and a SD: (1) Mark is an idle person and (2) We saw idle mountains in the rising sun. In the first sentence idle is used in literal meaning - lazy, running away from work. Thus, here it functions as an EM (a descriptive epithet). In the second sentence idle is used uncommonly, so the direct meaning of the given word cannot harmonize with the concept of mountains. That's why in the second sentence we observe figurative meaning of the given word sleeping or resting lazily, which can be found only within the context. Thus, here idle serves as a SD (a metaphorical epithet).

Such vague bonds between SDs and EMs one may explain as well by the dialectical nature of both. Tropes are fresh and unpredictable comparing with figures of speech as the former appear only within a context and the latter are fixed in dictionaries. Thus tropes, when used very frequently in a common use may turn into figures of speech. Nevertheless, both are tools of stylistics and function in order to make our speech more expressive and imaginative.

Among various classifications of stylistic tools - lexico-semantic, semasiological, syntactic, phonetic and graphic EMs and SDs - there are those, which do not cause much trouble when translating into Ukrainian within political discourse. For one, phonetic and graphic EMs and SDs are merely used in political texts or their usage and translation is quite understandable. The major part of syntactic EMs (inversion, parceling, detachment, polysyndeton, repetition, tautology, aposiopesis, enumeration) does not deal with any semantic meanings of the utterance. For example, lots of repetitions and tautology only prove that the addresser uses his strategies for achieving his goals by emphasizing essential points of his speech. By means of aposiopesis the speaker makes both hides his intentions and makes the addressees to start their thinking over a certain issue.

During our studying the speeches of politicians we observe that the most complicated moments when translating political texts into Ukrainian are related to lexico-semantic and semasiological stylistic tools. Thus, to the most problematic issues of translation one may refer rendering of: 1) cliches, 2) allusions, 3) aphorisms and quotations, 4) lexical metaphors, 5) euphemisms, 6) neologisms,7) abbreviations.

As we see, most of translation issues are connected to the lexis. But metaphors play a special role as they are studied within two types of metaphor theory: linguistic theory and cognitive one. The linguistic theory distinguishes metaphor as a trope, i.e. a SD. Such linguists define metaphor as an expression used in its figurative meaning, so there are the translation methods that we are looking for. According to linguistic theory, there are six types of metaphor, these are: dead, stock, adapted, recent, original metaphors and metaphors-cliches. Paying attention to each type's function one may chose the efficient translation method. But the general rule is:

1) to find out whether the coloring of the sense is positive or negative.

2) to realize whether the meaning is denotative or connotative (denotative sense plus additional information). According to linguistic theory, there are four translation methods that one may apply to the rendering the following example of political texts:

3) Kissinger: A TV portrait featuring a Metternich of today [6; p.105]. The addressee cannot capture how Clemens Metternich is described in the given sentence. It is vague which qualities of his are transferred on Kissinger. As to the first rule, if the coloring is positive the author might have meant a) Metternich's career as a successful politician of Europe, or b) his politician's shrewdness. In case (a) the translator should do literal translation, relying on background knowledge of an addressee. In case (b) and if the addressee has no knowledge of Metternich, the translator should ignore his general qualities and render his image of a skillful politician. If we have negative coloring, such as c) a cunning statesman or d) driving to the power politician, translation of the case (c) should be extended to a politician with a shrewdness of Metternich.

But there is a modern theory of metaphor as well, suggested by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson. According to their cognitive approach a metaphor is not merely a trope, but a way of human cognition within the world. Despite the existing authorial and conventional metaphors, the scientists distinguish its other three types - orientational, ontological and structural. Orientational metaphors can be translated literally, ontological - adapting to the equivalent in the target language (TL). The structural metaphors may be translated with descriptions [7].

The metaphors within politics are commonly colloquial words, which distinguish themselves in political texts:

4) I believe I will speak for millions of people across England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and many in Scotland too, who would be utterly heartbroken by the breakup of the UK... For the people of Scotland to walk away now would be like a painstaking building a home, and walking out the door, and throwing away the keys... Independence would be a painful divorce [8]. Through the entire passage we find many metaphors scattered. All of them have a hidden meaning. Metaphors breakup and a painful divorce reflect separation of the two closest people, which in return appeals to addressees' emotions. Such metaphors as a painstaking building a home with walking out the door and throwing away the keys render the results of such separation. So we recommend translating these tropes according to the author's intention. If it's a speech to the nation, that tries to manipulate people's mind by influencing their feelings, we should try to preserve the external form of some metaphors.

As we have the author, the text isn't anonymous, we should find in the TL equivalents, which correspond to the form and sense of original as precise as possible: breakup of the UK - розрив нашої об 'єднаної сім'ї; painstaking building a home- клопітке зведення оселі; walking out the door - полишення її (оселі); throwing away the keys- демонстративне позбавлення від можливості повернутися (to our mind, it is the metaphor the rendering proper sense of which is over the preserving its original form); a painful divorce - болісна розлука.

As to euphemism, it is a vague substitution of harsh or impolite utterances. Concerning the sphere of implementation euphemisms can be religious, medical, moral, parliamentary and so on. For example, B.Obama is generous in using euphemisms:

5) It doesn't matter whether you're black or white or Hispanic or Asian or Native American or young or old or rich or poor, abled, disabled, gay or straight [10]. The translation of the expressions should be following: gay or straight - традиційної сексуальної орієнтації чи ні (нетрадиційної); abled or disabled - працездатні або обмежені в (фізичних) можливостях; Native American - корінні жителі Америки; black or white - у Вас темний колір шкіри чи світлий.

The most troublesome aspects of political discourse translation appear to be neologisms, lacunas, cliches and abbreviations as they are to be rendered properly and accurately as possible. Groups of cliches and abbreviations cause less issues since many of them are registered. The major part of abbreviations corresponds to its co-occurrence within the TL. For one, abbreviation ECB (European Central Bank) preserves in translation both its form and sense (ЄЦБ - Європейський центральний банк). But there are also abbreviations, the form of which can be kept in the TL, but the full abbreviation not: NATO (North-Atlantic Treaty Alliance) has the following correspondence in the TL - НАТО (Північноатлантичний альянс). Another example is GDP (Gross domestic product) which does not preserve its form, only sense - ВВП (валовий внутрішній продукт). The best way to solve problems dealing with political abbreviations is to know and learn their equivalents recorded in dictionaries of the TL.

The same situation is concerning cliches. It is quite difficult to keep the external form of the lexical unit - mostly impossible - so the translator preserves the sense of cliches and usually adds descriptive translation, which expends the utterance: blue state - штат, що зазвичай голосує за демократів; gaffe - недоцільний вчинок, промах; ground game - робота з виборцями на місцях.

The language keeps up to date, so a great number of neologisms appears. The most efficient translation methods applying to neologisms are transliteration, calque, descriptive translation. In 1960s in the USA appeared neologisms pro-choice and pro-life. The former meant movement for leaving legislation out of family's decision, whether to keep an unborn baby (especially if the life of a woman is in danger). The latter - vice versa - supported rights of unborn babies and was against abortions. Nowadays the increasing number of borrowings from English penetrates into Ukarainian and Russian that is why translators may use transcoding in the text of the TL and make descriptive translation beneath the text. There is also such a brand new neologism as Brexit denoting the Exit of the UK from the European Union. In this case the translator may just transliterate the original term, relying on reader' s education and background knowledge.

One more SD connected to metaphor considered to be allusions, which are “hints” in the expressions. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to on the part of the reader. Usually there is no the source of allusion indicated - unlike quotations. A quotation must repeat the exact word order of the original phrase even though the meaning may be changed by the new context; an allusion is merely a mention of a word or word combination which may be regarded as the key-word of the expression. Thus, the translator has more difficulties with allusions trying to identify the source. The Ukrainian and Russian languages has not such a plenty of allusions and quotations as English does. Especially religious allusions are used in speeches of politicians. B. Obama used in his speech such words: (6) Through blood drawn by lash and blood drawn by sword, we learnt that no union founded on the principles of liberty... [9]. Only a very educated reader of the TL might have noticed the words of A. Lincoln - until every drop of blood drawn by the lash (до останньої краплі крові, залишеної різкою). As we see, the translator should be educated enough to find the key hints that may be instrumental in eliminating translation problems. We recommend translators to apply to the Oxford Dictionaries of Quotations and the Penguin Dictionary of Modern Quotations in order to avoid issues of recognizing the source of original expressions [2].

Conclusions

The language units within political texts (namely speeches of Englishspeaking politicians) were researched during the study. Among the great variety of stylistic tools under the research were those stylistic devices (tropes) and expressive means (figures of speech) causing most challenging difficulties in the process of translation. It was found out that those were such stylistic devices as metaphors, euphemisms and allusions. Still euphemisms can be related to the lexical level of linguistics. As it was stated, many translational issues are connected to the layers of lexis - namely translation of neologisms, cliches and abbreviations. Troublesome considered also aphorisms and quotations. Lexical level of the language merely deals with stylistics, though some layers of lexis the stylistic connotations have. There are examples of challenging tools of stylistics within the study. It was found out that in translation one should preserve both the outer form of the language units and its original sense created by the author. Under the conditions of preserving only one element the translator has to keep the sense. But stylistic tools due to their functions make emotional (in political texts) influence on the addressee, and rendering such an effect the translator should show his/her competence and do his/her best to keep both. There is uncertainty in proper distinguishing the types of stylistic tools. But such uncertainty is based upon vague bounds between the sciences, the levels of language, its functions and usage spheres of definite language units.

When translating neologisms and abbreviations one should first, consult the dictionaries to be sure there is no fixed equivalents of the given word/word combination in the TL, and secondly, if there is not a single one to propose the most appropriate variant (calque or transcoding) with a description. Translation methods concerning metaphors depend on the author's aim and the addressee's background knowledge. Rendering of allusions, aphorisms and quotations supposes that a competent translator manages to notice them and then to find the source of the given phrase. Translation of proverbs and zeugma cause as well a lot of difficulties, but the study of their rendering is in future considerations.

It is in the interests of the translator to know the source language properly, to enrich his/her background knowledge, to consult all the types of dictionaries whenever he/she hesitates, and finally, to learn new information about the surrounding world (watch the news, read the magazines and newspapers). And remember, if there is no an equal correspondent word in the target language, a competent translator will decrease the stylistic expressiveness rather than emphasize it.

References

1. Yefimov, L. P., & Yasinetskaya, E. А. (2004). Stylistyka angliiskoi movy [Practical stylistics of English]. Vinnytsia. Ukraine: NovaKnyha.

2. Lototska, K. (2008). Stylistyka angliiskoi movy [Practical stylistics of English]. Lviv, Ukraine: Vydavnychyi tsentr LNU im. Ivana Franka.

3. Alekseyev, А. Y. (2012). Sopostavitelnaia stilistika [Comparative stylistics]. Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine: Natsionalnyi gornyi universitet.

4. Galperin, I. R. (1977). Stilistika [Stylistics]. Moscow, SU: Vysshaia shkola.

5. Chudinov, A. P. (2006). Politicheskaia lingvistika [Political Linguistics]. Moscow, Russia: Flinta: Nauka.

6. Newmark, P. A. (2008). Textbook of Translation. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

7. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, US: Paperback Edition.

8. Cameron, D. (2014). Speech on saving Scotland in UK. Retrievedfrom https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQ5ktopNoLQ

9. Obama, B. B. (2013). Obama's Complete Inauguration Speech. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zncqb-n3zMo

10. Obama, B. (2012). Remarks by the President on Election Night. Retrieved from https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2012/11/07/remarks-president-election-night

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