Science of Great Britain of the XIX century

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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ

Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования

«ПЕНЗЕНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

Кафедра «Перевод и переводоведение»

Курсовая работа

по дисциплине “История и культура стран изучаемого языка”

на тему “ Science of Great Britain of the XIX century

Выполнил студент:

Полетаев Е.С.

Руководитель:

Савостьянов В. О.

Пенза 2017



The table of contents

Introduction

1. History of British Science

1.1 Natural and technical sciences

1.2 Linguistics

1.3 Social Sciences

1.4 Scientific institutions

2. Important advances

2.1 Electrical telegraph

2.2 Incandescent light bulb

2.3 Telephone

3. British scientists

3.1 Charles Darwin

3.2 William Sturgeon

3.3 Rowland Hill

3.4 James Marsh

3.5 George Boole

3.6 George Stephenson

3.7 Isambard Kingdom Brunel

Conclusion

The list of sources



Introduction

The science of Great Britain was considered the world's leading. It has a long history, producing many important figures and developments in the field. Most of the attention in the UK has traditionally been given to the natural and technical sciences. More than 70 British scientists awarded the Nobel Prize. [5]

The 19th century witnessed the rise of modern industry. From Western Europe to Britain to North America agriculture lost its preeminent role in social reproduction and yielded to industrial manufacturing and technology-intensive services like railroads, steam navigation, and telecommunication, to name but a few. Dramatic changes in the social fabric and the face of landscapes spread from the North Atlantic region throughout the world and bore witness to a fundamental shift in human history. Both the number of people and artifacts grew at an unprecedented rhythm. This emerging modern world was driven by an unending stream of new products turned out by factories employing radically new technologies, skills, and organization. Technological innovations, being the most palpable results of this new, accelerated mode of reproduction, were soon understood to represent the rationale of nascent industrial society. Never before in history and never within a single lifetime had so much novel material culture been produced. This sudden leap of productive potential puzzled contemporaries and continues to preoccupy historians

One of the many questions raised by this historical watershed concerns the sources of innovation in 19th century industry. While social and economic historians have concentrated on skills and organization, historians of science and technology have debated the character of novelty in technology. How much did technological innovation owe to recent advances in the sciences? To what extent was 19th century industry sciencebased? To what extent were developments in science and industrial technology independent of each other? Did science perhaps ultimately benefit more from technology than technology did from science?

The object of the study is the science and technology in the United Kingdom

The subject of the study is the science of Great Britain in 19th century

The purpose of the course work stipulated the following tasks:

· To familiarize with the science of the UK 19th century

· learn about the technologies of the 19th century

· Learn about some British scientists



1. History of British Science

1.1 Natural and technical sciences

Scientific progress is the idea that science increases its problem-solving ability through the application of the scientific method.

In the era of the early Middle Ages, the accumulation of knowledge in England occurred within the framework of ecclesiastical views, as in the rest of Europe. This knowledge was systematized by monks-scientists. In the XII-XIII centuries, the famous Oxford and Cambridge universities were founded. In the XV-XVI centuries, England successfully participated in the Great Geographical Discoveries. The development of production positively influenced the development of science in England, especially the exact sciences. In 1556, a manual on astronomy "The Castle of Knowledge" was created. Logarithms were invented.

The Center for Scientific Research in the 17th century from other European countries gradually began to move to the UK, which by that time was rapidly developing and became by the end of the century the strongest maritime power. At the end of the XVII century, the Royal Society of London developed a program of scientific research in the field of navigation (orientation, mapping), military technology (in particular, the study of projectile motion in the air), medicine, physics, metallurgy and nature. In 1675 the Greenwich Observatory was founded. The intensification of the differentiation of natural science led to the emergence of scientific societies: mathematical and biological. In those days, the work of natural scientists in Britain had a significant impact on the science of planet Earth. In the XIX century, British scientists have made progress in the field of physics and astronomy.

In the 19th century, British science occupies a dominant position in the world. Mainly due to the fact that in the country there were external stimuli for the development of natural and technical sciences (rapid progress in industry and agriculture, the study of natural resources in many countries of the world). The country was in the forefront of world engineering, in part because of the achievements of science. Thanks to the growth of industry, new areas and cities began to appear. There was a need to improve the means of communication. Soon a telegraph was created. A distinctive feature of the development of English mathematics in the 19th century is its close connection with the problems of theoretical physics and the creation of the algebra of "generalized quantities". It is worth noting that in the second half of the 19th century British chemistry, in contrast to physics, was inferior to German and French chemistry. The greatest moment in the development of world biology was the teaching of Charles Darwin on natural selection. [8]

1.2 Linguistics

At the end of the XV century. begins the study and teaching of ancient languages (classical Latin and Greek). Since the XVII century. - Oriental languages. In 1639, the course of the Old English language was introduced in Cambridge. Dictionaries, grammars of the Latin language are compiled and for the first time in the world the production of bilingual dictionaries of European languages begins. In 1666, Heinrich Wilhelm Ludolf publishes the first Russian grammar in Latin. [ ] At the end of the XVII century various publications in Sanskrit (for the first time in Europe) and comparative-historical linguistics begin to appear. In 1888, the multi-volume Oxford English Dictionary appeared. Toward the end of the 19th century there were an English school of phonetics. In the early twentieth century the linguistics of Great Britain continues to be interested in the living languages and dialects of India and Africa, which is accompanied by the compilation of a variety of dictionaries and grammar textbooks. However, the narrowness of the problematics and the practical orientation of the research of languages is changing to a growing attention to the theory and the creation of a general theory of language, as well as to a comparative and typological study of languages. In the 40-ies of the XX century. The London school of conceptualism, led by John Rupert Firth, is being formed. Followers of the school set a goal to develop a theory that could explain the specific features of specific languages and develop effective methods for their structural and functional description. The London School influenced the development of sociolinguistics, functional and contextual grammar, the linguistics of the text, and the development of theories of language assimilation. [7]

1.3 Social Sciences

In its long history, Britain's philosophy, while relying on the country's identity and on the experience of the rest of Europe in the field of philosophy, was oriented toward nominalism, empiricism and sensationalism.

The first English philosophers include the natives of Britain, who could realize themselves on the mainland: Alcuin and John Scotus Eriugena (within the framework of the Carolingian revival), as well as John Duns Scotus. Medieval scholasticism on English soil was brought by Anselm of Canterbury. The philosophy of the Renaissance left its mark. Thomas More introduced the term utopia and became the founder of modern socialism.

Francis Bacon initiated British empiricism and proclaimed the practice of criterism. In his opinion, the power of the British state must be based on science and scientific progress. The theory of knowledge was developed by such British philosophers as John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume. In their labor there was an interest in moral philosophy, where the moral sense became the criterion of good. Further development of ethics was carried out by the 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury and Jeremy Bentham, who developed the principles of utilitarianism and deontology. The political philosophy of the social contract was developed by Thomas Hobbes.

The industrial revolution promoted the spread of positivism, proceeding from the theory of evolution. This direction was developed by such thinkers as Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. The theory of inductive knowledge was developed by John Stuart Mill.

The birth of British historical science occurred in the era of the early Middle Ages. One of the first historiographers in England was Bede the Honorable, nicknamed "the father of English history"

1.4 Scientific institutions

At the beginning of the XX century, in all large universities of the country there were research laboratories, the equipment for which was purchased with the money of university scientists. Studies were conducted by teachers and students. The link between technical and fundamental research was fragile, because before the First World War began, the demand for scientific work from the industry, which had raw material resources, was small. As a result, the British industry lagged behind at the beginning of the century. Soon there were several private research laboratories, but they were few. After the Second World War, the number of scientific societies grew. In 1954, a network of institutions working in the field of nuclear physics and energy was formed. Scientific centers for microbiology were established.

The leading British scientific institution is the Royal Society of London, one of the oldest scientific societies in the world. It was created in 1660. One of the main organizations of the country, which conducts its activity in the field of natural sciences, is the Royal Academy of Engineering, founded in 1976. The main library is the British Library. It's the largest in the world



2. Important advances

2.1 Electrical telegraph

A constant desire to increase the speed of information transfer over long distances and make it more reliable, independent of various random circumstances, weather, etc., led to the replacement of optical telegraphs with electric or, better to say, electromagnetic.

The rapid communication of intelligence between points more or less distant is the object to be attained in constructing the Electric Telegraph.

The Electric Telegraph, like all great inventions, was not the work of a single mind. It has followed science in different developments, and could not have passed the domain of science into application, except the laws and principles of electricity were known, --which inspired new efforts that were to be crowned by a complete success. From 1780 to 1800, Reiser of Germany, and Salva and Bethancourt of Spain, tried some similar systems. Static electricity is, however, a production so volatile, and its insulation so difficult, that the problem of the electric telegraph could be considered only as a scientific conception without the discovery of dynamic electricity. In 1800, the curious discoveries of Galvani conducted Volta to the discovery of electric currents, and their chemical and physiological properties. A new era opened for the science, and per mitted a substitute of permanent supply of electricity in place of the electrical machine and the Leyden jar.

Mr. Francis Ronalds, in 1816 , constructed a telegraph, by which he was able to send signals with considerable facility and rapidity through a distance of eight miles. His plan was very simple. At either end of the wire was a clock carrying a light paper disc, on which were marked the letters of the alphabet, and certain words and numbers. By means of a perforated cover, only one letter was seen at a time. As the clocks run together, of course the same letter would be visible at the same time ; and if an electric discharge were sent from one station to another when a particular letter was exhibited on the dial, the observer at the other end would readily know the signal intended. [9]

Harrison Gray Dyar, an American, constructed a telegraph, in 1828, at the race-course on Long Island, and supported his wires by glass insulators, fixed on trees and poles. By means of common electricity acting on litmus-paper, he produced a red mark, and then passed the current through the ground as a return circuit. The difference of time between the sparks indicated different letters arranged in an arbitrary alphabet, and the paper was moved by the hand.

The discovery of the magnetization of soft iron under the influence of currents of induction, is due to Arago and Faraday ; but the development of the motor function of electricity, or of the means by which electro-magnetic power can be exerted at a distance, is due to the early experiments of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Professor Henry, whose discoveries in electro-magnetism, and especially of the quantity and intensity of the magnet, in 1830, laid the foundation for all subsequent forms of electro-magnetic telegraphs, and made succeeding steps com paratively easy.

This completes the series of necessary investigations for the application of electricity to the telegraph.

MM. Gauss and Weber, in 1834, constructed a line of tele graph over the houses and steeples of Gottingen. The circuit contained about 15,000 feet of wire. They used galvanic elec tricity, and applied the phenomenon of magnetic induction discov ered by Professor Faraday. The slow oscillations of magnetic bars caused by the passage of currents, and observed through a glass, furnished the signals for corresponding. The operation was complicated, slow, and inefficient.

M. Steinheil established at Munich, and worked, in 1837, an electric telegraph between two distant points. Up to this time the electric telegraph had been considered only as a curious the oretical science, without possible application, as, for the most part, the apparatus required separate wires for each letter or signal ; but it was not doubted, if the practical realization of the idea could be arrived at, that they could reduce this number to two, or even to one, by means of conventional combinations.

There remained, however, still an important question, which experience alone could solve, --whether it were possible to obtain upon a great length of wire a sufficient insulation without too great expense. The great extension of the lines of railway, in 1838, and the necessity felt for the means of rapid communication, hastened the solution of this question.

The first electric telegraph established in Europe for the actual transmission of despatches between distant points, was between London and Birmingham, in 1838, by Professor Wheatstone. Shortly after, lines were constructed by simply suspending the wires upon porcelain supports, when sufficient intensity was ob tained to work the apparatus to a great distance.

A system of electric telegraph consists of an insulated wire conductor uniting two stations ; a galvanic battery to generate the electric fluid ; an apparatus to transmit the current upon the line, called a key or manipulator ; and an instrument to observe the passage of the current, called a receiver.

The first line constructed in the United States was put in op eration in the month of June, 1844, between Washington and Baltimore. The next year it was continued to New York and Boston, and in 1846 to Buffalo and Harrisburg. The succeeding year a line was constructed between Buffalo and Montreal, and during the. same season between Boston and Portland. The next year, 1848, found the entire country excited upon the subject of the telegraph, and lines were projected and constructed in every direction. [2]

2.2 Incandescent light bulb

Fats and oleaginous materials were employed as means of lighting by the most ancient peoples. But, even among the most civilized nations of antiquity, such as the Greeks and Romans, this mode of lighting had preserved nearly as barbarous form as among the savage tribes. The lamp of Roman emperor was not much pleasanter or less smoky than the torch of resinous wood with which the first known men lighted their abodes ? those men whom history ignores, and whom geology has resuscitated during the last 25 years.

This lamp consisted simply of a vessel filled with oil, into which dipped thick, twisted wick, formed of any fibrous material, wool, linen, cotton, etc. The end of this wick was raised so as to rest on the edge of the vessel, and it was there that the oil burned, creeping up through the wick by capillarity.

Specimens of these apparatus can still be seen elsewhere than in museums. The peasants of other countries have preserved the classic lamp up to our days, perfecting little the burner, or neck, to prevent the wick from falling back into the oil.

The end of the eighteenth century was marked by discovery which produced upon the public as great an effect as that of the electric light to-day. This discovery, whose name now sounds even vulgar to us on account of its very popularity, is the Argand lamp.

If the lamp with thick wick gives so much smoke and so little light, it is because enough air does not get access to it to supply the oxygen necessary for the complete combustion of the carbon. The light being produced by the combustion, it is much less vivid, just like the combustion itself. On the other hand, the flame, full of particles of carbon which have not found molecules of oxygen to unite with in legitimate marriage, has not enough heat to bring all to the temperature where they become luminous. It remains, then, charged with black particles ? that is to say, with smoke ? which obscures it and fills it with all the odors that can be produced from the oil, odors which a more complete combustion would have de stroyed.

To suppress all these troubles a greater influx of oxygen upon the flame must be contrived. To do this, Argand had the idea of giving to the wick the form of a cylindrical tube, and allowing the air to penetrate to its center. The flame no longer formed a solid cylindroid like that of a candle, but a circular plane, quite thin, and well supplied on both sides with air, so that it no longer was in want of oxygen.

The modern lamp, which we use to the present day, was a. completed invention. But, just as it took its final form, it found ready for it a rival which has rapidly replaced it for all extended uses.

The electric lamp for production of the voltaic arc is com posed essentially of two rods of carbon, shaped at the ends like pencils, and placed in the prolongation of their mutual axis between these electrodes the current passes, and forms the voltaic arc.

Mr. Swan tried to construct an incandescent lamp with a small spiral of carbonized paper, which he placed between the two blocks of carbon, in the interior of a glass tube, where he had created a vacuum by pumping out the air, using the crude means then at the experimenter's disposal. The carbon grew red, but did not reach the elevated temperature of white heat, which alone can convert it into a true source of light; but it none the less was disintegrated, casting upon the walls of the glass tube carbonaceous particles which soon obscured them.

The principal cause of this want of success was the imperfect vacuum obtained. But, in 1877, the wonderful experiments of Mr. Crookes upon light in a vacuum showed that much more efficacious action could be obtained with a Sprengel mercury-pump. Mr. Swan took up his studies anew, in collaboration with Mr. Stearns, of Birkenhead, almost at the same time that Mr. Edison attacked the same problem in America with that energy which the Yankees bring into all their work.

Thanks to the Sprengel pump, the vacuum was more perfect, and the lamp did better, without working perfectly by any means, because the carbon soon became disintegrated.

This was due to the fact that carbon, like most other bodies, and even more than others, occluded in its pores a considerable quantity of air and of other gases, which the disturbance produced by the current slowly set at liberty. A double inconvenience resulted from this : the more perfect the vacuum that was obtained, the more the cohesion of the carbon was injured by these internal gaseous ebullitions.

The remedy was perfectly clear : it was to bring the carbon to incandescence while the vacuum was being produced, and to repeat the operation several times, to completely free it of all its gaseous guests. The filaments of carbon subjected to this prolonged treatment became greatly modified ; they grew very much harder, and acquired an elasticity that they would hardly have been deemed capable of.

It was only at the end of the year 1880 that Mr. Swan succeeded in giving his carbon-thread the solidity that characterizes it to-day, and on October 20th he presented his lamp to the Philosophic and Literary Society of Newcastle. The carbon-filament is now made out of cotton thread, which is bent into a horseshoe-shape with a spiral turn in its middle.

The lamp of Mr. Swan is now used in England in great many places. For example, one of the railroad companies of England employs it to light its cars, to the great satisfaction of travelers, who can read with pleasure. It has also been successfully tried in mines, with special model surrounded with water, and therefore incapable of igniting the fire-damp, even in case of breakage of the apparatus. Finally, it has been used in submarine operations with sounding apparatus.[3]

Many others can be added, because, at the present time, the Swan lamp is the most used of all incandescent lamps in actual practice ? that is to say, in paying operation. science kingdom telegraph teaching

English inventor Joseph Wilson Swan received in 1878 a British patent for a lamp with carbon fiber.

2.3 Telephone

Prior to the appearance of telegraphs (optical and electrical) and a telephone for transmitting messages over long distances, primitive methods were used, such as whistles, gongs, smoke signals or drumbeat. For example, you can hear a rifle shot at a distance of about ten kilometers, at the audibility of a high degree of supply near strange loud noises; the signal can be distorted by foreign shots. All these devices were imperfect due to the scattering of sound at a distance: in order to transmit the signal as far as possible, come to create intermediate points on which other signal feeders, after hearing the signal from the previous transmitter, transmit the sound further. In part, this problem would solve the transmission of signals through water or metal, in which sound expand with a higher speed and decays somewhat later.

A lot of controversy has been associated with the history of the phone. Despite the fact that the creator of the phone is considered to be Alexander Bell, to its opening almost simultaneously approached several people.

In 1861, the German physicist and inventor Johann Philipp Reis demonstrated another device that can also transmit musical tones and human speech over wires. The device had a microphone of original design, a power source (galvanic battery) and a speaker. Reiss himself called the device “Telephon” designed by him. [4]

The phone, patented in the USA in 1876 by Alexander Bell, was called the "speaking telegraph". Bell's tube served in turn for both transmission and reception of human speech. A. Bell's phone didn't have a phone call, later it was invented by A. Bell's colleague - T. Watson in 1878. To make a call, you had to use a whistle.

The range of this line did not exceed 500 meters.

June 25, 1876 Alexander Bell first demonstrated his phone at the first World Electrical Exhibition in Philadelphia.

The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell was not an accident. It came as a logical result of years of intense application to the problem, guided by an intimate knowledge of speech obtained through his devotion to the problem of teaching the deaf to talk and backed by two generations of distinguished activity in the field of speech.

In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice.



3. British scientists

3.1 Charles Darwin

The science of Great Britain was considered the world's leading. It has a long history, producing many important figures and developments in the field. Most of the attention in the UK has traditionally been given

Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, in the family estate Mount House. The fifth of six children of a wealthy physician and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He is the grandson of naturalistic scientist Erasmus Darwin on the paternal line and artist Josiah Wedgwood on the maternal. Both families largely accepted Unitarianism, but the Wedgwood were parishioners of the Anglican Church

In 1837, Charles Darwin began to maintain a diary, classifying plant varieties and breed of domestic animals. In it, he brought his thoughts on natural selection. The first notes on the origin of species appeared in 1842. "The Origin of Species" - a chain of arguments that support the theory of evolution. The essence of the teaching is the gradual development of species populations through natural selection. The principles set forth in the work were called "Darwinism" in the scientific community.

In 1856, the preparation of an expanded version of the book began. In 1859, 1250 copies of the work "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" were seen by the light. The book was bought in two days. During the life of Darwin, the book was published in Dutch, Russian, Italian, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Hungarian, Spanish and Serbian. Darwin's works are republished and popular now. The theory of the scientist-naturalist is still relevant and is the basis of the modern theory of evolution.

Another important work of Darwin - "The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex." In it, the scientist developed the theory of a common ancestor in man and the modern monkey. The scientist conducted a comparative anatomical analysis, compared embryological data, on the basis of which he showed the similarity of man and monkey.

Charles Darwin died at the age of 73, April 19, 1882. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. [10]

3.2 William Sturgeon

British physicist, electrical engineer and inventor, created the first electromagnets and invented the first English running electric motor.

He was born in Lancaster in 1783 in the family of a shoemaker. Father did not pay the slightest attention to the family. The young William was sent to learn the skills of a shoemaker. William was starving, and so, he fled from the shoemaker to the military unit. He was nineteen years old at the time. Two years later, William became an artilleryman, he read a lot, put physical and chemical experiments.

One day, when part of them stood on the island of Newfoundland, a terrible storm struck. The hurricane produced a surprisingly strong impression on William and drew his attention to electricity. He began reading books on natural science, but soon realized that he did not understand anything he had read. Then he decided to start from the very beginning and started writing, reading and grammar. The sergeant of the same unit supplied him with books that William, freed from watch, read at night. Soon he switched to mathematics, dead and new languages, optics and natural science. His passion in his spare time was to repair the clock and draw.

After his release from military service in 1820, Sturgeon bought a lathe and devoted himself to the manufacture of physical instruments, in particular electrical ones.

The world's first electromagnet, demonstrated by Sturgeon on May 23, 1825 to the Society of Arts, was a 30-inch-diameter, lacquered iron rod bent into a horseshoe, covered with a single layer of insulated copper wire. Electricity was supplied from a galvanic battery (voltaic column). The electromagnet held 3600 grams in weight and was much stronger than the natural magnets of the same mass. It was a brilliant achievement for those times.

He died in Prestwich in 1850. [13]

3.3 Rowland Hill

Sir Rowland Hill was an English teacher, inventor and reformer. He campaigned for a comprehensive reform of the postal system, based on the concept of Uniform Penny Post and his solution of prepayment, facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters. He later served as a government postal official, and he is usually credited with originating the basic concepts of the modern postal service, including the invention of the postage stamp.

Rowland Hill was born on the street Blackwell Street in Kidderminster, a city in Worcestershire (England). His father, Thomas Wright Hill, was an innovator in education and politics. When Rowland was eleven, he became a teacher in his father's school: he taught astronomy and worked part time, repairing scientific instruments. In addition, he worked in the Birmingham Assay Office and draw landscapes in his spare time.

In 1819 he moved his father's school "Hill Top" from central Birmingham, establishing the Hazelwood School at Edgbaston, an affluent neighbourhood of Birmingham, as an "educational refraction of Priestley's ideas". Hazelwood was to provide a model for public education for the emerging middle classes, aiming for useful, pupil-centred education which would give sufficient knowledge, understanding and skills to allow a student to continue self-education through a life. The school, which Hill designed, included innovations such as a swimming pool,a science laboratory and forced air heating.

For the first time Rowland Hill was seriously interested in postal reform in 1835. In 1836, Member of Parliament Robert Wallace provided Hill with a variety of books and documents that he described as "half hundred weight of material". Hill began a thorough examination of documents and as a result, in early 1837, published in London a pamphlet entitled "Post Office Reform: Its Importance and Practicability". On January 4, 1837, he sent a copy of the pamphlet to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Thomas Spring Rice.

The first edition of the pamphlet was classified as " private and confidential" and remained inaccessible to the public. The Chancellor of the Exchequer summoned Hill to his meeting, offered to improve and rework the pamphlet

Hill's pamphlet, "Post Office Reform: its Importance and Practicability" was distributed in closed order in 1837 and immediately attracted universal attention. Hill was one of the first to point out that the institution of postal service must first of all bear in mind the interest of the public, and therefore demanded a lowering of the fee and the destruction of many superfluous rules, heavy for the public. In addition, Hill proposed to lower the postage rate to a penny per half ounce, without regard to distance.

In May 1840 the World's first adhesive postage stamps were distributed. With an elegant engraving of the young Queen, the Penny Black was an instant success. Refinements, such as perforations to ease the separating of the stamps, were instituted with later issues.

From 1839 to 1842, Hill lived at 1 Orme Square, Bayswater, London, and there is an LCC plaque there in his honour.

3.4 James Marsh

James Marsh was a British chemist who invented the Marsh test for detecting arsenic.

James Ernest Marsh, the youngest member of a large family, had many brothers and sisters. His father, John Marsh, was associated with the chemical industry. Now James Marsh is part of the Empire of the Chemical Industry. James was educated at Rugby and Balliol College in Oxford. He also studied for a short time in Germany and France. Marsh was mistaken for a Frenchman because of his appearance, as well as countless unnoticed, at first glance, details, throughout his life. In Paris, he studied medicines. Later, returning to Oxford, James himself began to read a course of lectures on pharmacology.

In 1832 Marsh was called as a chemist by the prosecution in a murder trial, wherein a certain John Bodle was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee. Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid. While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it came to show it to the jury it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt. Annoyed by this, Marsh developed a much better test. He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery-black deposit. So sensitive was the test that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836. [15]

3.5 George Boole

George Boole was an English mathematician, educator, philosopher and logician. He is best known as the author of The Laws of Thought (1854) which contains Boolean algebra. Boolean logic is credited with laying the foundations for the information age.

George Boole was born and raised in the family of modest means artisan John Bull, who was keen on science. Father, interested in mathematics and logic, gave his first lessons to his son, but he was unable to discover early his outstanding talents in the exact sciences, and his first passion was the classical authors.

Only at the age of seventeen, Boole reached higher mathematics, moving slowly because of the lack of effective assistance.

At age 19, Boole successfully established his own school in Lincoln. Four years later he took over Hall's Academy in Waddington, outside Lincoln, following the death of Robert Hall. In 1840 he moved back to Lincoln, where he ran a boarding school. Boole immediately became involved in the Lincoln Topographical Society, serving as a member of the committee, and presenting a paper entitled, On the origin, progress and tendencies Polytheism, especially amongst the ancient Egyptians, and Persians, and in modern India.

Boole maintained that:

“No general method for the solution of questions in the theory of probabilities can be established which does not explicitly recognise, not only the special numerical bases of the science, but also those universal laws of thought which are the basis of all reasoning, and which, whatever they may be as to their essence, are at least as to their form” [1; 273]

In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0 respectively. Instead of elementary algebra where the values of the variables are numbers, and the prime operations are addition and multiplication, the main operations of Boolean algebra are the conjunction and denoted as ?, the disjunction or denoted as ?, and the negation not denoted as ¬. It is thus a formalism for describing logical relations in the same way that ordinary algebra describes numeric relations.

He died of fever-induced pleural effusion. [12]

3.6 George Stephenson

George Stephenson was an English inventor, a mechanical engineer. Renowned as the "Father of Railways", Stephenson was considered by the Victorians a great example of diligent application and thirst for improvement.

His rail gauge of 4 feet 8 1?2 inches (1,435 mm), sometimes called "Stephenson gauge", is the standard gauge by name and by convention for most of the world's railways.

George Stephenson was born on 9 June 1781 in Wylam, Northumberland. He was the second child of Robert and Mabel Stephenson, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a very low wage, so there was no money for schooling. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit in Newburn. George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic - he was illiterate until the age of 18.

Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on the Killingworth wagonway named Blьcher after the Prussian general Gebhard Leberecht von Blьcher (It was suggested the name sprang from Blьcher's rapid march of his army in support of Wellington at Waterloo). Blьcher was modelled on Matthew Murray's locomotive Willington, which George studied at Kenton and Coxlodge colliery on Tyneside, and was constructed in the colliery workshop behind Stephenson's home, Dial Cottage, on Great Lime Road. The locomotive could haul 30 tons of coal up a hill at 4 mph (6.4 km/h), and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive: its traction depended on contact between its flanged wheels and the rail.

Stephenson was hired to build the 8-mile (13-km) Hetton colliery railway in 1820. He used a combination of gravity on downward inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches. This, the first railway using no animal power, opened in 1822. This line used a gauge of 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) which Stephenson had used before at the Killingworth wagonway.

Stephenson had ascertained by experiments at Killingworth that half the power of the locomotive was consumed by a gradient as little as 1 in 260. He concluded that railways should be kept as level as possible. He used this knowledge while working on the Bolton and Leigh Railway, and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), executing a series of difficult cuttings, embankments and stone viaducts to level their routes. Defective surveying of the original route of the L&MR caused by hostility from some affected landowners meant Stephenson encountered difficulty during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original bill, especially under cross-examination by Edward Hall Alderson. The bill was rejected and a revised bill for a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session. The revised alignment presented the problem of crossing Chat Moss, an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it.[6] The method he used was similar to that used by John Metcalf who constructed many miles of road across marshes in the Pennines, laying a foundation of heather and branches, which became bound together by the weight of the passing coaches, with a layer of stones on top.

As the L&MR approached completion in 1829, its directors arranged a competition to decide who would build its locomotives, and the Rainhill Trials were run in October 1829. Entries could weigh no more than six tons and had to travel along the track for a total distance of 60 miles (97 km). Stephenson's entry was Rocket, and its performance in winning the contest made it famous. George's son Robert had been working in South America from 1824 to 1827 and returned to run the Forth Street Works while George was in Liverpool overseeing the construction of the line. Robert was responsible for the detailed design of Rocket, although he was in constant postal communication with his father, who made many suggestions. One significant innovation, suggested by Henry Booth, treasurer of the L&MR, was the use of a fire-tube boiler, invented by French engineer Marc Seguin that gave improved heat exchange.

The opening ceremony of the L&MR, on 15 September 1830, drew luminaries from the government and industry, including the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington. The day started with a procession of eight trains setting out from Liverpool. The parade was led by Northumbrian driven by George Stephenson, and included Phoenix driven by his son Robert, North Star driven by his brother Robert and Rocket driven by assistant engineer Joseph Locke. The day was marred by the death of William Huskisson, the Member of Parliament for Liverpool, who was struck by Rocket. Stephenson evacuated the injured Huskisson to Eccles with a train, but he died from his injuries. Despite the tragedy, the railway was a resounding success. Stephenson became famous, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways

George contracted pleurisy and died, aged 67, on 12 August 1848 at Tapton House in Chesterfield, Derbyshire. He was buried at Holy Trinity Church, Chesterfield, alongside his second wife.

Pioneered by Stephenson, rail transport was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century and a key component of the Industrial Revolution.

3.7 Isambard Kingdom Brunel

Isambard Kingdom Brunel is a British engineer, one of the major figures in the history of the Industrial Revolution. The son of Mark Brunel. Born in Portsmouth, he was educated at Cana College and Henry IV High School.

Brunel worked for several years as an assistant engineer on the project to create a tunnel under London's River Thames between Rotherhithe and Wapping, with tunnellers driving a horizontal shaft from one side of the river to the other under the most difficult and dangerous conditions. Brunel's father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company

He is is considered "one of the most ingenious and prolific figures in engineering history", "one of the 19th century engineering giants", and "one of the greatest figures of the Industrial Revolution

Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering.[11]

Though Brunel's projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. During his career, Brunel achieved many engineering firsts, including assisting in the building of the first tunnel under a navigable river and development of SS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven, ocean-going, iron ship, which, when built in 1843, was the largest ship ever built.

Brunel is perhaps best remembered for designs for the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol. The bridge was built to designs based on Brunel's, but with significant changes.

During his life Brunel built 25 railways in England, Ireland, Italy, India. Designed and supervised the construction - 8 piers and dry docks, 5 suspension bridges, 125 railway bridges, including the Clifton Bridge near Bristol, UK. [14]



Conclusion

In the 19th century, British science occupies a dominant position in the world. Mainly due to the fact that in the country there were external stimuli for the development of natural and technical sciences (rapid progress in industry and agriculture, the study of natural resources in many countries of the world). The country was in the forefront of world engineering, in part because of the achievements of science. Thanks to the growth of industry, new areas and cities began to appear. There was a need to improve the means of communication. Soon a telegraph was created. A distinctive feature of the development of English mathematics in the 19th century is its close connection with the problems of theoretical physics and the creation of the algebra of "generalized quantities". It is worth noting that in the second half of the nineteenth century British chemistry, in contrast to physics, was inferior to German and French chemistry. The greatest moment in the development of world biology was the teaching of Charles Darwin on natural selection.

In Great Britain, many important inventions and discoveries were made: a locomotive, a modern bicycle, a propeller, a multi-stage reactive steam turbine, an electromagnet, a stereo sound, an internal combustion engine, photography, antibiotics, in vitro fertilization, HTML, HTTP and many others.

More than 70 British scientists are awarded the Nobel Prize. In the UK, about 4.5% of world science spending and 8% of all scientific publications of the world are done.

The UK continues to play a major role in the development of science and technology.



The list of sources

1) - Boole, George (2012) Studies in Logic and Probability -- 273p.

2) John Joseph Fahie -- A history of electric telegraphy to the year 1837 London: E. F. N. Spon, 16, Charing Cross. New York: 35, Murray Street. 1884.

3) Em. Alglave and J. Boulard -- The electric light New York: D. Appleton and company, 1, 8, and 5 Bond Stbeet. 1884.

4) Harold S. Osborne Biographical Memoir of Alexander Graham Bell 1847-1922

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