Translation problems of the novel "The old man and the sea" by Ernest Hemingway

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Introduction

Under deep socio-cultural transformations, which have taken place in Independent Uzbekistan during the transition to a market economy, multiple forms of property and different social systems, the problem of bringing up new citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan, their historical memory and their education have special significance. All people, especially the youth, need a deep appreciation and love of the rich heritage of our great ancestors and the inexhaustible stock of their philosophical and scientific works. Without the historical experience of one's own nation and national and human values it is impossible to build a great future. That is why the problem of the continuity of the knowledge and learning languages of different countries, including the English language, understanding countries' culture, particularly English speaking and getting acquainted with values of being competitive specialists, by all citizens of the Republic, has special significance.

In the years of independence (after 1991) there have been essential transformations in Uzbek schools of translation. We hope this dissertation paper will highlight translation studies in its depth and help to make clear how the translation is being developed, investigated and dealt with the most prominent methodologies and linguists' contribution to it by analysis of many examples causing difficulties in the translation process. Basically we try to define the level of translated work, fiction work written by Ernest Hemingway. We would like to present different methods of translations, techniques and lingua-stylistic peculiarities which were used by translators.

As we know, the shortage of skilled translators from western languages into the Uzbek language brought to some problems of translating. We should mention, all translations from the second half of the XIX century were not directly done from the western languages, the translations of fiction and scientific literature were done through the Russian translations. Practically there were no schools of translation directly from English. And it caused misunderstanding with the connotative meaning of the source text. But we should add that the translations which were done through Russian, were very influential on the development of the Uzbek culture in general. In this cultural and literary interchange and interpenetration Russian played a role of the bridge, binding Uzbek readers with world culture and literature. The works of more than thirty representatives of English and American literature, writers and poets were translated into Uzbek at the same period. However, the main feature of these translations was the fact that they were not direct translations from English, but the translations mediated through Russian.

One of the branch of translation is the translation of fiction, and indeed this is a branch which has become more outstanding in the translation field. The language in fiction is usually colloquial because it comprises both narratives and dialogues. This colloquial language often causes problems in translation, since it usually contains cultural meanings, secondary meanings or figurative language. As a result, it is difficult to find equivalents in the target language when translating from one language into another, especially, as states, when the cultures of the languages are different.

From the very moment of appearance of different languages and to the present days there are many difficulties connected with the translation, because a translator faces lots of problems besides delivering a common sense of the original text or speech. Of course, lots of things depend on the functional style of the original: if it is a scientific one, the main task would be to translate the content, but while translating a fiction work it is important to preserve the form and semantical meaning as well. In this case stylistic and semantic aspects are of no small importance.

The topicality of the research sets conditions for revealing the degree of translatability of texts which, to the present, don't have any evidences and theories of the unique solution. Especially this fact concerns the literary texts that cannot be developed and studied without tools of translation.

Topicality of the research work also sets conditions for further development of methods of complex stylistic analysis of original literary unit. Giving the above, and taking into account that currently, in the era of social development relations, the problem of adequate translation is much more important than ever in such an important field of fiction translation, we may state the topicality of this research is in the importance to increase direct translations of the world literature (the Source Text) to the Uzbek language; and to overview the general problems of translation and specific problems of literary translation.

Field of research: Researches dealing with problems of fiction translation particularly with the figurative language, foreignism and mistranslation in the sphere of translation, as well as their grammar, semantic, pragmatic problems.

The goal of the research is to reveal lexical and grammatical, as well as cognitive and linguacultural features of translation of the texts and translation problems in fiction translation. Trying to identify the frequency of the use of methods of translation texts by comparing English, Uzbek and Russian versions.

The tasks are:

· To get a notion on the special features of terms, determine the place of the terminology in the language system;

· To investigate specifics of translation from English and Russian into Uzbek; translation stylistic hemingway

· To research the stylistic peculiarities of literary texts;

· To overview the general problems of translation and specific problems of literary translation;

· To study Hemingway's writing style;

· Distinguishing translation features highlighted in the translation of The Old Man and the Sea;

The subject of the research - representing fiction translation problems.

The object of this research is translation problems of the novel The Old Man and the Sea.

Material of the research - The novels: “The Sun Also Rises”, “A Farewell to Arms”, “For Whom the Bell Tolls”, “The Old Man and The Sea” by Ernest Hemingway and their translations into the Russian and Uzbek languages.

Methodology of research - From the initial aim of our research is the analysis of the translation into the Uzbek language which was done from the Russian language and present translation methods, strategies, techniques which have been used to solve the problems of translation and give own version of translation trying to reproduce the style of Hemingway to get closer to the original.

We analyzed different techniques of translation as Direct Translation Techniques (Borrowing, Calque, Literal Translation) and Oblique Translation Techniques (Transposition, Modulation, Reformulation or Equivalence, Adaptation, Compensation), which were used in translation of alliteration, repetition, metaphor, synonym and rhyming.

Methodological base of the research: our research work is based on the works of native and foreign researchers on fiction translation of the Russian and English languages (Vinogradov V.V., Vinokur G.O., Galperin I.R., Kazakova T.A., Fawcett P., Shapiro N., Newmark P., Roman Jakobson and etc.), theoretical and practical sources on translation (Vinogradov V.V., Arnold I.V., Barkhudarov L.S., Fyodorov A.V., Hatim B., Susov I.P., Solodub Yu.P., and etc.).

The novelty of the research. The study of history of development of Uzbek schools of translation and its own specifics and originality.

The detailed analysis of basic translation methods and techniques of translation of the novel was carried out. The results of the theoretical part of the investigation can be applied to the practical study of various translation problems of fiction translation.

The theoretical value of the research results. The investigation, detailization of the issues studied, theoretical value of the received results lead terms to the conclusion that this research proves that it is very important to develop Uzbek schools of translation directly from English and vise versa. The results of the research can be used in writing articles and master thesis on the related subject.

The practical value of the research results. The results of the research can be used in educational process while teaching written and oral translation and in teaching English for specific purposes.

The structure of the dissertation paper is traditional. It consists of introduction, three chapters with conclusions, final conclusion, list of used literature.

The introduction outlines the topicality of the research, the main goal and tasks. It presents methods and value of the research.

The first chapter is devoted to the review of theoretical issues of translation, types of translation, the role of translators during the translation process. It also discusses specifics of translation from English into Uzbek, Uzbek translation schools and the history of development of direct translations from English into Uzbek.

Chapter 2 focuses on peculiarities of fiction translations, study of several definitions of the term “style”, classification of functional styles and defining some of common problems translators face while translating literary texts.

Chapter 3 is devoted to the analysis of E. Hemingway's unique writing style, his “iceberg” technique. We analysed the translation of his novel The Old Man and the Sea. We examined more than 40 examples which we considered interesting to study.

In the conclusion the results of the carried out research are summed up and conclusions are formulated.

1. Translation activity and its Problems

1.1 Translation and the translator's invisibility

Translation studies have developed in many parts of the world and is clearly destined to continue developing well into the twenty-first century. A lot of translators and linguists tried to give definition to the term translation in accordance with their investigations, but still they haven't come to a single opinion. Translation has been a part of work in a wide variety of fields, including linguistics, literary study, history, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. Rewritings can introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices, and the history of translation is the history also of literary innovation, of the shaping power of one culture upon another. But rewriting can also repress innovation, distort and contain, and in an age of ever increasing manipulation of all kinds, the study of the manipulative processes of literature as exemplified by translation can help us toward a greater awareness of the world in which we live. From the other side according to English linguist J.C.Catford who wrote in his work “A linguistic theory of translation”, that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). This definition is intentionally wide - not vague, though it may appear so at first sight. Two lexical items in it call for comment. These are 'textual material' (where 'text' might have been expected) and 'equivalent'. The use of the term 'textual material' underlines the fact that in normal conditions it is not the entirety of a SL text which is translated, that is, replaced by TL equivalents. At one or more levels of language there may be the simple replacement, by nonequivalent TL material: for example, if we translate the English sentence What time is it? into German as Wie spдt ist es? there is a replacement of SL (English) grammar and lexis by equivalent TL (German) grammar and lexis. There is also a replacement of SL graphology by TL graphology - but the TL graphological form is by no means a translation equivalent of the SL graphological form. Moreover, at one or more levels there may be no replacement at all, but simple transference of SL material into the TL text.., but Professor of Comparative Literary Studies in Translation at the University of Warwick, Susan Bassnett, in her book “Translation Studies” gives her definition and writes that translation is the belief that there are general principles of the process of translation that can be determined and categorized, and, ultimately, utilized in the cycle of text- theory - text regardless of the languages involved.

As we can see all investigations of linguists couldn't give the exact formulation and clarity to the term “translation”. In spite of these determinations came closely to solve the matter Geoffrey Samuelsson Brown, he writes in his book A Practical Guide for Translators, that “translation is also a creative and not just an automatic process. It means that you will need to exercise your interpreting and editing skills since, in many cases, the person who has written the source text may not have been entirely clear in what he has written. It is then your job as a translator to endeavour to understand what the writer wishes to say and then express that clearly in the target language.”

But we always forget about the great role of the translator who becomes invisible during the process of translation. The following quotation as given by Norman Shapiro as determination to the experienced translator:

I see translation as the attempt to produce a text so transparent that it does not seem to be translated. A good translation is like a pane of glass. You only notice that it's there when there are little imperfections-scratches, bubbles. Ideally, there shouldn't be any. It should never call attention to itself.

“Invisibility” is the term we will use to describe the translator's situation and activity in contemporary Anglo - American culture. It refers to two mutually determining phenomena: one is an illusionistic effect of discourse of the translator's own manipulation of English; the other is the practice of reading and evaluating translations that have long prevailed in the United Kingdom and the United States, among other cultures, both English and foreign language. According to his book a translated text, whether prose or poetry, fiction or nonfiction, is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers, and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writer's personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text - the appearance, in other words, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the “original.” The illusion of transparency is an effect of fluent discourse, of the translator's effort to insure easy readability by adhering to current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, fixing a precise meaning. What is so remarkable here is that this illusory effect conceals the numerous conditions under which the translation is made, starting with the translator's crucial intervention in the foreign text. The more fluent the translation, the more invisible the translator, and, presumably, the more visible is the writer or meaning of the foreign text is. The dominance of fluency in the English language translation becomes apparent in a sampling of reviews from newspapers and periodicals. On those rare occasions when reviewers address the translation at all, their brief comments usually focus on its style, neglecting such other possible questions as its accuracy, its intended audience, its economic value in the current book market, its relation to literary trends in English, its place in the translator's career. And over the past fifty years the comments are amazingly consistent in praising fluent discourse while damning deviations from it, even when the most diverse range of foreign texts is considered., For instance, fiction is the most translated genre worldwide. European and Latin American writers are the most translated into English, with different kinds of narratives - novels and short stories, realistic and fantastic, lyrical and philosophical, psychological and political.

Roman Jakobson, in his article On Linguistic Aspects of Translation, distinguishes three types of translation:

(1) Intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language). (2) Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language). (3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems).

Having established these three types, of which translation proper(2) describes the process of transfer from SL to TL, Jakobson goes on immediately to point to the central problem in all types: that while messages may serve as adequate interpretations of code units or messages, there is ordinarily no full equivalence through translation. Even apparent synonymy does not yield equivalence, and Jakobson shows how intralingual translation often has to resort to a combination of code units in order to fully interpret the meaning of a single unit. Hence dictionary, of so - called, synonyms may give perfect as a synonym for ideal or vehicle as a synonym for conveyance but in neither case can there be said to be complete equivalence, since each unit contains within itself a set of non - transferable associations and connotations.

As a complete equivalence (in the sense of synonymy or sameness) cannot take place in any of his categories, Jakobson declares that all poetic art is therefore technically untranslatable:

Only creative transposition is possible: either intralingual transposition - from one poetic shape into another, or intralingual transposition - from one language into another, or finally intersemiotic transposition - from one system of signs into another, e.g. from verbal art into music, dance, cinema or painting.

What Jakobson is saying here is taken up again by Georges Mounin, the French theorist, who perceives translation as a series of operations of which the starting point and the end product are significations and function within a given culture. So, for example, the English word pastry, if translated into German without regard for its signification, will not be able to perform its function of meaning within a sentence, even though there may be a dictionary `equivalent'; for pasta has a completely different associative field. In this case the translator has to resort to a combination of units in order to find an approximate equivalent. Jakobson gives the example of the Russian word сыр (a food made of fermented pressed curds) which translates roughly into English as cottage cheese. In this case, Jakobson claims, the translation is only an adequate interpretation of an alien code unit and equivalence is impossible.

Anne Cluysenaar, in her book on literary stylistics, makes some important points about translation. The translator, she believes, should not work with general precepts when determining what to preserve or parallel from the SL text, but should work with an eye on each individual structure, whether it be prose or verse, since each structure will lay stress on certain linguistic features or levels and not on others. She goes on to analyse C.Day Lewis' translation of Valйry's poem, Les pas (The footsteps) and comes to the conclusion that the translation does not work because the translator was working without an adequate theory of literary translation. What Day Lewis has done, she feels, is to have ignored the relation of parts to each other and to the whole and that his translation is, in short, a case of

perceptual “bad form”. The remedy for such inadequacies is also proposed: what is needed, says Cluysenaar, is a description of the dominant structure of every individual work to be translated. Cluysenaar's assertive statements about literary translation derive plainly from a structuralist approach to literary texts that conceives of a text as a set of related systems, operating within a set of other systems. As Robert Scholes puts it:

Every literary unit from the individual sentence to the whole order of words can be seen in relation to the concept of a system. In particular, we can look at individual works, literary genres, and the whole of literature as related systems, and at literature as a system within the larger system of human culture.

The failure of many translators to understand that a literary text is made up of a complex set of systems existing in a dialectical relationship with other sets outside its boundaries has often led them to focus on particular aspects of a text at the expense of others. Studying the average reader, Lotman determines four essential positions of the addressee:

a) Where the reader focuses on the content as matter, i.e. picks out the prose argument or poetic paraphrase. b) Where the reader grasps the complexity of the structure of a work and the way in which the various levels interact. c) Where the reader deliberately extrapolates one level of the work for a specific purpose. d) Where the reader discovers elements not basic to the genesis of the text and uses the text for his own purposes.

Clearly, for the purposes of translation, position a) would be completely inadequate (although many translators of novels in particular have focused on content at the expense of the formal structuring of the text), position b) would seem an ideal starting point, whilst positions c) and d) might be tenable in certain circumstances. The translator is, after all, first a reader and then a writer and in the process of reading he or she must take a position.

So, for example, Ben Belitt's translation of Neruda's Fulgor y muerte de Joaquнn Murieta (Splendor and death of Joaquin Murieta.) contains a statement in the Preface about the rights of the reader to expect `an American sound not present in the inflection of Neruda', and one of the results of the translation is that the political line of the play is completely changed. By stressing the `action', the `cowboys and Indians myth' element, the dialectic of the play is destroyed, and hence Belitt's translation could be described as an extreme example of Lotman's third reader position. The fourth position, in which the reader discovers elements in the text that have evolved since its genesis, is almost unavoidable when the text belongs to a cultural system distanced in time and space. The twentieth - century reader's dislike of the Patient Griselda motif is an example of just such a shift in perception, whilst the disappearance of the epic poem in western European literatures has inevitably led to a change in reading such works. At the semantic level alone, as the meaning of words alters, so the reader/translator will be unable to avoid finding himself in Lotman's fourth position without detailed etymological research. So when Gloucester, in King Lear, (Act III sc.vii), bound, tormented and about to have his eyes gouged out, attacks Regan with the phrase `Naughty lady', it ought to be clear that there has been a considerable shift in the weight of the adjective, now used to admonish children or to describe some slightly comic (often sexual) peccadillo. “Much time and ink has been wasted attempting to differentiate between translations, versions, adaptations and the establishment of a hierarchy of correctness between these categories. Yet the differentiation between them derives from a concept of the reader as the passive receiver of the text in which its Truth is enshrined.” In other words, if the text is perceived as an object that should only produce a single invariant reading, any deviation on the part of the reader/translator will be judged as a transgression. Such a judgement might be made regarding scientific documents, for example, where facts are set out and presented in unqualifiedly objective terms for the reader of SL and TL text alike, but with literary texts the position is different. One of the greatest advances in the twentieth - century literary study has been the reevaluation of the reader. So Barthes sees the place of the literary work as that of making the reader not so much a consumer as a producer of the text, while Julia Kristeva sees the reader as realizing the expansion of the work's process of semiosis. The reader, then, translates or decodes the text according to a different set of systems and the idea of the one correct reading is dissolved. At the same time, Kristeva's notion of intertextuality, that sees all texts linked to all other texts because no text can ever be completely free of those texts that precede and surround it, is also profoundly significant for the student of translation. As Paz suggests all texts are translations of translations of translations and the lines cannot be drawn to separate Reader from Translator. Quite clearly, the idea of the reader as a translator and the enormous freedom this vision bestows must be handled responsibly. The reader/translator who does not acknowledge the dialectical materialist basis of Brecht's plays or who misses the irony in Shakespeare's sonnets or who ignores the way in which the doctrine of the transubstantiation is used as a masking device for the production of Vittorini's anti-Fascist statement in Conversazioni in Sicilia is upsetting the balance of power by treating the original as his own property. And all these elements can be missed if the reading does not take into full account the overall structuring of the work and its relation to the time and place of its production. Maria Corti sums up the role of the reader in terms that could equally be seen as an advice to the translator:

Every era produces its own type of signedness, which is made to manifest in social and literary models. As soon as these models are consumed and reality seems to vanish, new signs become needed to recapture reality, and this allows us to assign an information-value to the dynamic structures of literature. So seen, literature is both the condition and the place of artistic communication between senders and addressees, or public. The messages travel along its paths, in time, slowly or rapidly; some of the messages venture into encounters that undo an entire line of communication; but after great effort a new line will be born. This last fact is the most significant; it requires apprenticeship and dedication on the part of those who would understand it, because the hypersign function of great literary works transforms the grammar of our view of the world.

The translator, then, first reads/translates in the SL and then, through a further process of decoding, translates the text into the TL language. In this he is not doing less than the reader of the SL text alone, he is actually doing more, for the SL text is being approached through more than one set of systems. It is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. The interlingual translation is bound to reflect the translator's own creative interpretation of the SL text. Moreover, the degree to which the translator reproduces the form, metre, rhythm, tone, register, etc. of the SL text, will be as much determined by the TL system as by the SL system and will also depend on the function of the translation. If, as in the case of the Loeb Classics Library, the translation is intended as a line by line crib on the facing page to the SL text, then this factor will be a major criterion. If, on the other hand, the SL text is being reproduced for readers with no knowledge either of the language or the socioliterary conventions of the SL system, then the translation will be constructed in terms other than those employed in the bilingual version and criteria governing modes of translation have varied considerably throughout the ages and there is certainly no single proscriptive model for translators to follow.

1.2 Specifics of translation from English into Uzbek

History of development of Uzbek schools of translation has its own specifics and originality. This originality is characterized by broad development in the Middle Ages of translations from oriental languages, generally from Arabic, thanks to existence of bilingual dictionaries.

From the second half of the XIX century translations were not directly done from the western languages, but, the translations of fiction and scientific literature from Russian, including the translations from other languages of the world literature, through the Russian language began to develop.

The role of these translations of the Russian literature, or through Russian, the world literature was very influential on the development of the Uzbek culture in general. In this cultural and literary interchange and interpenetration Russian played a role of the bridge, binding Uzbek reader with world culture and literature.

Uzbek schools of translation of the XX century actually in their main structure and practice were based on the translations from Russian. Therefore, English - language literature was also translated through Russian. Practically there were no schools of translation directly from English. The above - stated specifics of Uzbek schools of translation are based on the following factors: 1) Uzbek schools of translations were created in the Middle Ages and they gave opportunities for broad development of Islamic religion and culture. In a consequence many representatives of the Central Asian school of science and literature made a huge contribution to formation and development of an Islamic civilization in many sciences. Creativity of great Encyclopaedists of that time is a bright evidence of it. Presence of translators and bilinguals, as well as defining dictionaries were one of the characteristic features of that time. 2) Development of Uzbek translation school was always connected with growth of national consciousness and manifestation of ideas of revival of national greatness, with growth of educational movement. The Uzbek educators strived to acquaint the reader with the greatest and immortal works which have entered into gold fund of the world literature. Therefore, during enlightenment there were first attempts of translations from Russian and other languages including from English. 3) The most developed period of Uzbek schools of translation was in the second half of the XX century. During this period as scientific discipline the main principles, methodology, the main directions of the Uzbek translation school and Uzbek transleologiya were created. A number of transleologs and translators entered literary scene. Poets and writers were engaged in translation activity. During this period the research works devoted to pecularities of a literary translation, such by have been carried out transleologes as G. Salamov, S. Mamadzhanov, G. Hodzhayev, N. Vladimirova, K. Dzhurayev, N. Kamilov, S. Meliyev, S. Azimov, Sh. Atabayev, S. Achilov, B. Ermatov, H. Ismailov, M. Bakayeva, N. Atadzhanov, K. Musayev. During this period hundreds of translations of the works of the world literature were done by dozens of translators, writers and poets as Usman Nasyr, Sandzhar Syddyk, Dzhumaniyaz Sharipov, Ninel Vladimirova, Mirzakalon Ismailiy (more than 200 works of classics of the Russian and Western literature), Gulnara Gafurova, Askad Mukhtar, Gafur Gulyam (Shakespeare, "Othello"), M. Sheykhzade (Shakespeare, "Hamlet", "Romeo and Juliette", "King Lear"), Uygun (Shakespeare, "Julius Caesar"), Kamil Yashen (Shakespeare, "Anthony and Cleopatra"), Jahmal Kamal (Shakespeare, "Richard III"), Mahomed Ali (Ramayana), Kadyr Mirmukhamedov (J. Boccaccio, "Decameron"), Erkin Vakhidov (Goethe, "Faust"), Abdulla Aripov (Dante, "The divine comedy"), Sh. Shamukhamedov have been published (Firdousi, "Shakhnam" and classics of the Persian literature). During the same period the works of English poets such as Robert Burns and Byron, sonnets of Shakespeare, works of Charles Dickens, Johnathan Swift, Theodore Dreiser, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway and other authors were translated into Uzbek. In 1980-1990 Christopher Marlowe's tragedy "Tamburlaine the Great" was translated into Uzbek.

The works of more than thirty representatives of English and American literature, writers and poets were translated into Uzbek at the same period. However, the main feature of these translations was the fact that they were not the direct translations from English, and were the translations mediated through Russian.

In the years of independence (after 1991) there were essential transformations in Uzbek schools of translation. Practice of direct translations of the world literature increased. Russian began to lose the role of intermediate language. Fourthly, new features of Uzbek schools of translation appeared today, this is the direct translations into Uzbek from all world languages, including from English. Translations are made from English into Uzbek, but from Uzbek into English there is no active movement yet. Another of feature of today's practice is the development, of translations significant and recognized by readers the works on sociopolitical, historical, philosophical, scientific-technical and natural disciplines, including direct translations of film materials.

Today there are all opportunities for broad development of schools of translation into Uzbek and from Uzbek, and given that, there is no problem of getting originals of works of art. At the same time fast paces activities for the edition of language dictionaries develop in Uzbekistan that is a convenient opportunity for a transleologiya.

The tradition of the direct translations from English into Uzbek began from 30s of the XX century. Then, 80s of the XX century, the tradition of the direct translations into Uzbek from English has been renewed. Thus, the study of the history of translation from English into Uzbek has revealed peculiar sides of Uzbek national tradition of the language translations. Today a new perspective period with full opportunities has begun in Uzbek transleologiya. The main features of this period are defined by such factors as expansion of literary, cultural, scientific communication with foreign states, wide opportunities for learning of foreign languages, an opportunity for many people to make trips to foreign countries to increase language qualification, especially English, abundance of necessary educational matereals and dictionaries, a possibility to use the Internet and telecommunications, the organization at many universities of real - lively communication with native speakers and many others. However, these ample opportunities are not enough. Still the work carried out in the system of education,on training specialists aimed at literary and scientific translation is not effective. Therefore, among the actual problems of the present period connected with the sphere of a transleologiya, it is possible to specify such problems as target education of highly qualified personnel, providing them with translation activity, involvement of modern poets and writers in translation activity, the organization of special courses of translation skills, material maintenance of creative business trips of young specialists to foreign states within their specialization, continuous increase of their qualification, providing legal guarantees of work of translators and material security at an appropriate level of their intellectual and creative activity.

History of development of the direct translations from English into Uzbek can be divided into the following stages conditionally: 1) Stage of the first translations in the period of national enlightenment (end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century). The translations from English during this period were based on aspiration to acquaint with progressive and educational ideas, desire to propagandize the best - known works of the world literature. 2) The mediated and direct transfer from English made during the former Soviet period. (1924-1991). The best-known works of English - language literature were translated in this period. It was done to to familiarize the reader with the progressive literature. It was supported and encouraged financially. But this movement developed not naturally, and was carried out on the basis of certain intentions of national policy of the Soviet period of development of the country. It was the difficult period in development of translation school. In most cases first the Russian - language variant was prepared, then it was translated into Uzbek. As a result of it the number of direct translations from English made minority, and eventually, the school of translators capable to do direct translations wasn't created. 3) The translation of works of English - language literature during years of independence (1991-2011). Feature of this period is the increased social need for the direct translations of works from foreign languages. But in these translations, changes were made in questions of objective preservation of essence of the original work. Step by step the national schools of translation began to be restored. However, the transleologiya directly began to prove itself not through the translation of works of art, but through dubbing of movies. One more features of this period is that in the first years of independence, because of economic political crisis, the transleologiya as the independent direction of cultural life of society stops in the development, but then gradually begins to be restored. Above we purposefully used such term as English - language literature. Because English - language literature covers literary works of England, USA, Australia and other countries including India. Thus, on the basis of scientific analysis of the main features of the works translated from English into Uzbek it is possible to come to the following conclusions: a) creation of Uzbek schools of translation of national character has become possible only in the period of independence. Therefore, during this period, instead of translations through Russian, but nevertheless the tradition of direct translations from foreign languages has been adjusted; b) in the period of independence through activity of national schools of translation an opportunity to exempt the translations from ideological requirements and censorship was created; c) exactly these years a creative environment and opportunities for reorganization on a national basis of the Uzbek transleologiya and formation on the basis of modern requirements of criteria of a transleologiya have been created.

In the first chapter, we studied the term translation in accordance with a number of its investigations, and we showed several definitions and chose one which is, in our opinion, more closely defined the term translation.

Translation is a very complicated process which is performed by the translator while rendering the source text into another language. There are several definitions to the term “translation”, given by the scholars in the field of translation theory and practice.

It is known, that a target text is not fully identical to a source text, even if it has been translated by the translation wizard. The reason is that, both languages are completely different in their structure and lexis, multiword units like idioms and collocations. Moreover, we must make a point of ambiguity, and culture. These reasons are not solely problems of translation.

But within our life time we surely read enduring foreign languages masterpieces, created with the help of translators and appreciate them highly.

It should be pointed out that the translation from the English language is considered to be quite a difficult process that requires from a specialist high creativity and professionalism. We should admit that a translator must know the terminology, the stylistics, the culture, the SL and the TL that is quite important to create a good translation. Besides the translator must be aware of a sentence structure and must have some special experience of choosing more adequate definitions of words in order to preserve the sense of the source material.

The more concentration was paid to the translation activities after inderpendence of Uzbekistan, before all translations had been done through the Russian language. The most developed period of Uzbek schools of translation was in the second half of the XX century. During this period a scientific discipline, the main principles, methodology, the main directions of the Uzbek translation school and Uzbek transleologiya were created. A number of transleologs and translators entered a literary scene. Poets and writers were engaged in translation activity. During this period the research works devoted to pecularities of a literary translation, have been carried out by transleologes as G. Salamov, S. Mamadzhanov, G. Hodzhayev, N. Vladimirova, K. Dzhurayev, N. Kamilov, S. Meliyev, S. Azimov, Sh. Atabayev, S. Achilov, B. Ermatov, H. Ismailov, M. Bakayeva, N. Atadzhanov, K. Musayev.

2. Peculiarities of fiction translations

2.1 Literary translation as one of the four principal categories of translation

A translator has to deal with diverse texts, belonging to various styles and registers. The term style has acquired several definitions. First, the way something is said, done, expressed (elevated, or bookish, neutral, and low, or colloquial styles). Second, the combination of distinctive features of a literary expression, execution, or performance characterizing a particular school, person, etc. (Byron's style, baroque style). Third, the term style is often a reduction for functional style, i.e., a language variety specific of a certain social sphere and characterized by a definite predominant function.

The concept of functional style has been developed in Russian (V. Vinogradov, M. Kozhina, D. Shmelyov et al.) linguistics. American and British linguists use the term register, which is close in meaning to functional style. Register is defined as the style of language, grammar and words used for particular situations.

There has been a number of classifications of functional styles. Most linguists single out colloquial style, publicist style, scientific-technical style, official, and belle-letter style. All of them, except for the everyday colloquial style, are represented by informative texts, carrying an informative function. The status of the literary style, or the style of imaginative literature, is controversial. Also disputable is the style of advertising, as well as colloquial style.

All styles are subdivided into substyles and genres. They can be of written and oral forms.

A translator has to know not only special features of each style, but also the different peculiarities of a style in the source and target languages.

Before analyzing a belle-letter style, we will pay attention to the special features of other styles.

One of the informal styles is a colloquial style which comes from the Latin colloquium, which means a “conference” or “conversation.” As a literary device, colloquialism refers to the usage of informal or everyday language in literature. Colloquialisms are generally geographic in nature, in that a colloquial expression often belongs to a regional or local dialect. They can be words, phrases, or aphorisms. Native speakers of a language understand and use colloquialisms without realizing it, while non-native speakers may find colloquial expressions hard to translate. This is because many colloquialisms are not literal usages of words, but instead idiomatic or metaphorical sayings. Colloquialism is similar to slang, but the definition of colloquialism has some key differences as described below. Colloquial, conversational, informal refer to types of speech or to usages not on a formal level. Colloquial is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or “bad” or “incorrect” usage, whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Conversational refers to a style used in the oral exchange of ideas, opinions, etc.: an easy conversational style. Informal means without formality, without strict attention to set forms, unceremonious: an informal manner of speaking; it describes the ordinary, everyday language of cultivated speakers.

The term publicist style is a coinage of Russian linguists. Foreign researchers speak of different variations, like journalistic language, news media language, newspaper language, broadcasting language, etc.

The publicist style carries out simultaneously two functions - informative and expressive - and is used in public and political spheres of activity. It is subdivided into newspaper, journalistic, oratorical, and propagandist substyles which have particular genres. For example: The newspaper substyle includes editorials, news stories, chronicles, reports, summaries (e.g., weather broadcasts, sports results, etc.).

As Russian linguist Kostomarov holds the view that the main distinctive features of the publicist style are standardization and expressiveness. These features fulfill the two basic functions: to inform the readers as quick as possible, which demands from a journalist the use of ready-made phrases, or clichйs, sometimes called journalese. Expressiveness results from the necessity to influence public opinion.

Expressiveness can be detected in lexical characteristics of newspapers, magazines and broadcasting, and also in headlines.

English mass media are abundant in connotative colloquial words and phrases, even slang, new words, abbreviation. Metaphorical and metonymical associations are not infrequent, especially those connected with sports: An industrial port [...] received a serious blow[...].

Epithets sometimes accompany nouns (strenuous political activity, aggressive grain exporters, the crystal-clear waters).

A formulaic character of newspaper language is also seen in the vocabulary, syntactic structures, and headlines.

One more linguistic style is scientific-technical style. The main function of the scientific-technical style is informative. To convey logical information, prove its novelty and significance is the main goal of a scholarly, scientific or technical author. This style is used in professional spheres of science, humanities, technology.

The scientific-technical style involves the following substyles: scientific, technical, instructional (educational), popular science substyle. The substyles are classified into the following genres: monograph, manual, textbook, article, report, technical description, discussion, etc.

The distinctive features of scientific-technical style are preciseness, clear logic, compressive character, impersonality, formality.

Preciseness is a basic property of a scientific-technical text, and it should be strictly maintained in translation. A translator must be fully aware of what he/she is translating to render precisely the content of the text. Special attention must be paid to terms. To translate precisely, it is not enough to know an equivalent of the term. It is crucial to know the exact place of the concept, denoted by the term, in relation to other concepts. Therefore, translators in science-technologies have to specialize in a foreign language and a particular subject field. In fact, there are two types of translators: linguist translators and engineering translators. The former usually require penetration into the subject matter, the latter need good language skills.

Official style regulates interrelations between the State and its citizens, among citizens, the community and its members, between governments, parties, enterprises, etc. This style serves in two spheres of activity - 1) administrative and legislative spheres; 2) business, public life, and community service. Respectively, there are two substyles: officialese and commercialese, or business language. The substyles are presented by the following genres: law, treaty, agreement, contract, act, bylaw, decree, constitution, charter, edict, interim, instruction, memorandum, certificate, letter, fax, telex, business plan, etc. These genres have a mostly written form.

The distinctive features of texts of this style are accuracy, standardization, directive character, impersonality, clear structure.

To ensure valuable translation, it is necessary to an interpreter to present the following objectives:

1. The substantial acquaintance to a subject, which is treated in the original text.

2. Good enough knowledge of language of an artwork and its lexical and grammatical features in comparison to the native language.

3. Knowledge of the bases' theory of translation, and also receptions of technical translation and skill to use them.

4. Legible introducing about the character of scientific-technical functional style both in language of the original, and in the native language.

5. Acquaintance to accepted conventional signs, abbreviations (cuttings), systems of measures and weights, both in language of the original and in the native language.

The world of fiction is the world where reality represents in some respect an author's thought and thus in literary style of speech the main role is played by the subjective moment. The whole reality around is presented through the author's imagination and view. In a literary text we can see not only the world of the writer but also his feelings, emotions and thoughts.

Thus, such feeling and emotions are expressed by stylistics and style. So the problem of the significance of stylistics and style in the literary translation is a problem of today.