Verb forms

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Introduction

The words of every language fall into classes which are called Parts of Speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its own. The parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, in form and in function.

One of the parts of speech is the Verb. According to content, the verb can be described as word denoting action (the term “action” embracing the meaning of activity (to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (to sleep, to wait, to live), state (to be, to like, to know), relation (to consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like. According to form, it can be described as a word that has certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech; they have the category of tense, aspect, voice. According to the function, verb can be defined as a word making up the predicate of the sentence.

The English Verbs can be divided into two main groups, according to the function they perform in the sentence - the finite forms and non-finite forms.

The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicate forms.

The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions. These forms are also called the verbals. The non-finite forms or the verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verbs do not express person, number or mood. Therefore they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence. Like the finite forms of the verbs the verbals have tense and voice distinctions, but their tense distinctions differ from those of the finite verb.

There are three verbals in English: the participle, the gerund, and the infinitive. In Russian there are also three non-finite forms of the verb, but they do not fully coincide with those in the English language ( причастие, деепричастие, инфинитив).

In English the verbals have the following characteristic traits:

a) They have a double nature: nominal and verbal. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective; the gerund and the infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a known.

b) The tense distinctions of the verbals are not absolute like those of the finite verbs, but relative. The form of a verbal does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the present, past or future. It shows only whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or prior to it.

In the sentence a verbal may occur.

a) singling (without accompanying words)

Eg. She went away smiling.

Reading is out of question, I can't fix my attention on books.

b) in phrase (i.e. with one or several accompanying words - an object or an adverbial modifier to the verbal). The phrases form syntactic units serving as one part of the sentence. A phrase should not be confused with a predicative construction. Between the elements of a phrase there is no predicate relation as it does not include a noun or pronoun expressed by a verbal.

Eg. Not to disquiet his sister, he had said nothing to her of the matter. c) in predicative constructions.

Eg. She heard him open the door and go out the yard. All the verbals can form predicative constructions. They consist of two elements: a nominal (noun or pronoun) and a verbal (participle, gerund or infinitive). The verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominal element. That is to say it stands in the subject and the predicate of the sentence. It most cases predicative constructions form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence.

Eg. The sat down to supper, Jerry still talking cheerfully.

“Jerry still talking cheerfully” is a predicate relation to the noun Jerry, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.



1. Predicative Constructions with the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb

The Non-Finite forms of the Verb are more simple and economical expressive means of thought. Combinations of non-finite forms of the verb with a noun or pronoun standing a front of them form various grammatical constructions.

In English there are three non-finite forms of the verb: Participle, Gerund, and Infinitive. Therefore, there are three groups of predicative constructions. These are the constructions with Participle, Gerund, and Infinitive. Participial, Gerundial and Infinitive constructions are highly varied. The structure of some of them is foreign to the Russian language, although their meaning can be fully conveyed in Russian with the help of forms, characteristic of Russian. The constructions are translated into Russian by objective, attributive, adverbial or other subordinate clauses.

eg. 1) My son having lost the key, we could not enter the house. Поскольку мой сын потерял ключ, мы не могли войти в дом . (Participle)

Here Participle is translated into Russian as the predicate of a subordinate clause.

2) There is no mistake about his being a genius. - Не может быть никакого сомнения в том, что он - гений. (Gerund)

3) She heard him open the door and go out into the garden. - Она слышала , как он открыл дверь и вышел во двор . (Infinitive)

My course paper aims at analyzing the Predicative Constructions with the Infinitive, the ways of translating them into Russian.



2. Body

verb infinitive predicative sentence

2.1 Predicative Infinitive Constructions

In Modern English we distinguish the following predicative constructions with the infinitive:

1. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

2. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

3. The For-to-Infinitive Construction

4. The Absolute Infinitive.

2.2 The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence this construction has the function of a Complex Object . In translating the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction into Russian there is always used a subordinate clause.

Eg. She is a wonderful teacher and I've never seen her lose her temper or get angry about anything. - Она замечательная учительница, и я никогда не видела, чтобы она вышла из себя или рассердилась из - за чего-нибудь.

I believe him to know this subject well. - Я пологаю, что он хорошо знает этот предмет.

I consider this question to be very important. - Я считаю, что этот вопрос очень важен.

Although, sometimes a sentence containing The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction may be translated by a simple sentence.

Eg. The dread of the unknown made me recede (step back).

He won't allow himself do otherwise.

One's gaze made me turn round.

His parents let him go to country excursion.

She will never let him leave.

2.3 The Use of the Objective Infinitive Construction

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used:

1. After verbs denoting sense perception, such as: “to hear, “to see, “to watch, “to feel, “to observe, “to notice, etc.

Eg. I haven't heard anyone call me. - Я не слышал, чтобы кто-нибудь меня звал.

I saw David enter the room . - И видел, как Девид вошел в комнату.

After verbs of sense perception only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive Participle II is used.

Eg. I saw the fire slowly faded. - Я видел, как пожар постепенно потух.

If a process is expressed, Participle I Indefinite Active is used.

Eg. He saw Wendy coming - Он увидел, как Венди идет.

It should be noted that the verb “to see” should be followed by a clause and not by the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction, when it is used in the meaning of “to understand”.

Eg. I saw that he did not realize the danger. - Я видел (понимал), что он не осознает опасность.

After the verbs “to see ” and “to notice ” the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is not used with the verb “to be”. In such cases Subordinate Clause is used.

Eg. I saw, that he was pale. - Я видел, что он побледнел.

When the verb “to hear” is not a verb of sense perception and is used in the meaning “to learn”, “to be told”, a clause or a gerund is used, but not the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.

Eg. I heard that he had left for France. - Мне сказали (Я слышал), что он уехал во Францию.

We have heard that she has found a job. -- Мы узнали, что она нашла работу.

After verbs denoting mental activity, such as: “to know, “to think, “to consider, “to believe, “to suppose, “to expect, “to imagine, “to find, “to feel, “to trust”, and etc.

After verbs of mental activity in the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction the verb “to be” is generally used. But this restriction does not apply to the verb “to expect”. The use of this construction after most verbs of mental activity is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style.

Eg. I know you to be the most honest , spotless creature that ever lived. - Я знаю, что Вы самое честное и безупречное существо из всех, когда-либо живших на свете.

If you suppose that boy to be friendless, you deceive yourself. - Если вы предполагаете, что у этого мальчика нет друзей, вы ошибаетесь.

Everybody expected her to marry Pete. - Все ожидали, что она выйдет замуж за Пита.

After verbs of mental activity the Perfect Infinitive is used, but seldom.

Eg. The doctor found his heart to have stopped two hours before. - Доктор установил, что его сердце перестало биться два часа тому назад.

In the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction after verbs “to think”, “to consider”, “to find”, the verb “to be” is left out.

For instance, instead of “I consider him to be a good specialist” we can say “I consider him a good specialist” and translate into Russian literally “Я считаю его хорошим специалистом”. (This sentence is translated by simple sentence.)

After verbs of declaring: “to pronounce”, “to declare”, “to report”.

Eg. The surgeon pronounced the wound to be a slight one. - Врач сказал , что рана легкая.

She declared him to be the most disobedient child in existence . After verbs denoting wish and intention: “to want”, “to wish”, “to desire”, “to mean”, “to intend”, “to choose” (in the meaning “хотеть”) and also after the construction “I would like” (Я хотел бы).

Eg. He intended me to go with him to India. I want you to come and dine with me. I don't choose you to go by yourself to a hotel. I would like her look to through my report. After verbs and expressions denoting feeling and emotion: “to like”, “to dislike”, “to love”, “to hate”, “cannot bear”, etc.

Eg. I dislike you to talk like that.

I hate him to be flogged.

I cannot bear you to speak of that. After verbs denoting order and permission: “to order”, “to allow”, “to suffer”, “to have”, etc.

Here we find the Objective-with-the-Infinitive only if the object is expressed by a noun or pronoun, denoting lifeless thing or when the Infinitive is passive. This restriction does not apply to the verbs to suffer and to have.

Eg. Mr. Sinclair ordered his carriage to be ready early in the morning. Мистер Синклер распорядился , чтобы экипаж был готов рано утром.

She had never allowed the name to John Gordon to pass her lips. - Она никогда не позволяла себе произносить имя Джона Гордона. (This sentence is translated by simple sentence.)

He ordered the wounded to be carried away from the field of battle. - Он приказал, чтобы раненного унесли с поля боя.

However, if the noun or pronoun denotes a person and it is followed by an inactive form as a rule the Infinitive is not a part of the Complex Object and has the function of second Direct Object, immediately subordinated to the Verb.

Eg. He ordered the prisoners to go away. - Он приказал пленным (заключенным) уйти. (This sentence is translated by simple sentence.)

7. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting compulsion: “to make ” (in the meaning “заставить”), “to cause” (“заставить”, “распорядиться”), “to get” (“добиться”), “to have” (“заставить”,”сказать чтобы”).

Eg. Light steps in the gravel made him turn his head. - Легкие шаги по гравию заставили его повернуть голову. (This sentence is translated by simple sentence.)

She caused a telegram to be sent to him.

The noise caused her to awake. - От шума она проснулась. (This sentence is translated by simple sentence.)

I cannot get her to finish her lessons. - Я не могу заставить ее закончить уроки.

Though the Infinitive as a rule is not used with verbs requiring prepositions, the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is widely used with the preposition “for”. This construction consists of the preposition “for” plus noun in common case (or pronoun in objective case) plus Infinitive. These construction are translated into Russian by a subordinate clause, usually introduced by the conjunctions “что”, “чтобы” and at the same time the noun or pronoun of that construction together with proceeding preposition for is translated by a noun (or a pronoun) in the function of the subject of subordinate clause, and the infinitive is translated by a finite for of verb which is the predicate of the subordinate clause.

Eg. He waited for her to speak but she did not. Он ждал, чтобы она заговорила, но она молчала.

Occasionally the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction occurs with the preposition “on” or “upon” (after the verb “to rely”).

Eg. I rely on you to come in time. - Я рассчитываю, что вы придете вовремя.

I rely upon you not to go over to the opposition. - Я надеюсь, что вы не переметнетесь к оппозиции.

The gerund however is also possible here.

Eg. I rely on your coming in time. - Я рассчитываю, что вы придете вовремя.

II. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

(The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction )

The objective with the infinitive construction may combine with a wide range of verbs and is usually used as a direct object, though it may also occur in the function of an indirect object.

Verbs which may take the objective with the infinitive construction as a direct object:

a) and require the infinitive with the particle to:

Ї verbs of wish and intention (wish, want, desire, choose, prefer, should / would like, intend, mean, etc.): I did not mean it to be told to her;

Ї verbs of attitude (like, dislike, love, hate, cannot bear, etc.): I can't bear people to be unhappy or upset;

Ї verbs of mental activity (think, suppose, consider, believe, know, find, expect, imagine, understand, assume, acknowledge, feel, trust, etc.): I supposed him to have been marriedto her years ago;

Ї verbs of declaring (declare, report, pronounce, etc.): Everybody pronounced him to be a complete failure;

Ї verbs of inducement (order, command, ask, allow, etc.): She would not allow the life of the child to be risked;

b) and require the bare infinitive (the infinitive without to):

Ї verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, observe, notice, etc.): We saw planes zoom into the air;

Ї the verbs let, make: She made him cry.

The objective with Participle I construction can be used with:

Ї verbs of sense perception: There we saw the crocodiles swimming about;

Ї the causative verbs have and get: He got them running his errands every day.

The objective with Participle II construction can be attached to verbs of four semantic groups:

Ї verbs of sense perception: I heard my name called;

Ї verbs of mental activity (think, believe, consider, remember): At first she thought Johnny killed;

Ї verbs of wish: Nobody wanted it done in such a way;

Ї the causative verbs have and get: I would like to have my hair cut.

The objective construction with non-verbals can be attached to:

Ї verbs of mental activity and sense perception: I thought it a wonderful opportunity;

Ї causative verbs: All this made her angry.

One of the most important developments in Late ME and Early NE syntax was the growth of predicative constructions. Predicative constructions date from the OE period, when Dat. Absolute was used in translations from Latin and the Acc. with the Inf. -- in original English texts; the latter construction occurred only with verbs of physical perception (see § 216); a short time later a new type of construction appeared after verbs of physical perception: the Acc. with Part I.

In Late ME and in Early NE the Acc. with the Inf. and the Acc. with the Part. came to be used with an increasing number of verbs of various meanings. New types of predicative constructions appeared in Late ME and Early NE texts: the Nom. with the Inf. and with Participles I, II (also known as Subjective predicative constructions), the Nom. Absolute construction and the Absolute construction with prepositions, and, finally, the for-phrase with the Inf. and the Gerundial construction.

The following quotations from Early NE texts exemplify various predicative constructions;

Objective Predicative Constructions (“Complex Object”)

I would desire you to draw your knife and grave your name. (Dekker)

When the Noble Caesar saw him stab; ... and bid them speak for me; ... mothers shall but smile when they behold

Their infants quarter'd with the hands of war. (Shakespeare)

Subjective predicative construction ("Complex Subject")

Although he were adjudged, in the court of Rome, to have forfeeted, all the right which he had to his Kingdome ... (Holinshed)

He was reported to be a very uncontended person. (Puttenham)

Absolute constructions

My flesh being troubled, my heart doth hear the spear. (Wyatt)

... and, after that dede done, ther was no more money yoven us. (Pas- ton Letters)

... and with hym mette a shippe callyd Nicolas of the Towre, with other shippis wayting on him. (Paston Letters)

(The Absolute construction could at first be introduced by various prepositions; later with was standardised.)

Gerundial complexes

... the very next day after his coming home departed out of this world to receive his reward in the Spiritual court of Heaven. (Dekker) (See also § 474).

For-phrase with the Infinitive

The descriptions whereof were too long for mee to write, and you to read. (Dekker)

The advantage of the for-phrase and the Gerundial construction over other predicative constructions was that they were less restricted syntactically: they could be employed in various syntactic functions.

All predicative constructions were formed according to a single pattern: they consisted of a nominal element indicating the agent or subject of an action or state and a non-finite form denoting this action. When relationships between the component parts of predicative constructions were firmly established, the second element began to be expressed by nominal parts of speech without the help of verbals, e. g. adjectives and nouns:

... and you shall not sin

If you do say we think him over-proud and under-honest. (Shakespeare)

... came the Emperour ... from huntyng, the Dophin on his ryght hand, the Duke of Orleans on the lyfft. (Fabian)

Though all predicative constructions are based on a uniform underlying pattern, they have developed from different sources: from verb patterns with direct and prepositional objects followed by an infinitive or a participle, noun patterns with participles used as attributes, verbal nouns modified by possessive pronouns or nouns, elliptical infinitive sentences. Some scholars believe that predicative constructions in English arose under the influence of Latin and that they should be regarded as direct borrowings from Latin (M. Callaway). Though predicative constructions were frequently used in translations from Latin at all historical periods, there seems to be no doubt of their native origin.

In late ME and early NE predicative constructions of different types were commonly used both in translations and in original texts. In the age of the Literary Renaissance many works were translated from Latin into English - it has been found that predicative constructions. Especially the Objective predicative and the Absolute construction were more frequent in translations from Latin than in original prose. Since their frequency continued to grow in later ages it seems probable that the literal translation of Latin constructions played a certain role in their further growth: it is also probable that some of the more complicated patterns - with the passive forms of the verbals - appeared as direct replicas of Latin constructions. with the exception of these aspects, neither the origin of the constructions nor their growth in NE can be attributed to foreign influence. Their growing productivity in the NE period is part of the development towards more complicated syntactic structures in the written forms of the language in the ages of Literary efflorescence.

The growth of the written forms of English, and the advance of literature in Late ME and Early NE manifested itself, among other changes, in the further development of the compound and complex sentence. Differentiation between the two types became more evident, the use of connectives -- more precise. The diversity of sentence structures in Late ME and Early NE reveals considerable freedom in the nature and use of clauses. The flexibility of sentence patterns and the variable use of connectives were subjected to new constraints and regulations in the period of normalisation.

An adverbial clause of cause joined with the help of by way of reason and by cause that:

Than seye they ther-in swich difficultee By way of resoun, for to speke al playn,

By cause that ther was swich diversitee Bitwene her bothe lawes...

(`Then they saw there such difficulty in it for the reason, to speak plainly, because there was so much difference between their two laws...')

In the 16th-17th c. the structure of the sentence became more complicated, which is natural to expect in a language with a growing and flourishing literature. The following passage from a prose romance by Philip Sidney, one of the best authors of the Literary Renaissance, shows the complex structure of the sentence:

“But then, Demagoras assuring himselfe, that now Parthenia was her owne, she would never be his, and receiving as much by her owne determinate answere, not more desiring his owne happines, then envying Argalus, whom he saw with narrow eyes, even ready to enjoy the perfection of his desires; strengthening his conceite with all the mischievous counsels which disdayned love, and envious pride could geve unto him; the wicked wretch (taking a time that Argalus was gone to his countrie, to fetch some of his principal frendes to honour the mariage, which Parthenia had most joyfully consented unto), the wicked Demagoras (I say) desiring to speake with her, with ummercifull force, (her weake arms in vaine resisting) rubd all over her face a most horrible poyson: the effect whereof was such, that never leaper lookt more ugly than she did: which done, having his men and horses ready, departed away in spite of her servants, as redy to revenge as they could be, in such an unexpected mischiefe.”

The structure of the sentence was further perfected in the 18th and 19th c. It suffices to say that from the 15th to 18th c. the number of coordinating connectives was almost doubled. As before, most conspicuous was the frequent use of and, a conjunction of a most general meaning; other conjunctions widened their meanings and new connectives arose from various sources to express the subtle semantic relationships between clauses and sentences, e. g. in consequence, in fact, to conclude, neither...nor. In the Age of Correctness the employment of connectives, as well as the structure of the sentence, was subjected to logical regulation in the writings of the best stylists: J. Dryden, S. Johnson, R. Steele, J. Addison, J. Swift, D. Defoe, and others. Their style combined a clear order with ease and flexibility of expression, which manifested itself in the choice of words, grammatical forms and syntactic patterns.

The concern of 18th c. men-of-letters with language matters is illustrated by the debate about the use of relative pronouns. In 1711 R. Steele, one of the editors of the first English newspapers, published a letter entitled “The Humble Petition of Who and Which”, in which he claimed that the upstart that was ousting the older wh-forms. He was wrong in asserting that who and which as relative pronouns were older than that: that was common as a relative (also as a conjunctive) pronoun since the earliest periods of history, while who and which -- originally Interrogative -- turned into relative pronouns at a far later date -- probably in ME.

R. Steele objected vehemently to the use of which in reference to human beings and suggested that the use of that should be restricted. Other authors, who took part in the debate, agreed that a strict distinction should be made between who and which, and argued that whose was the Gen. of who but not of which. It is noteworthy that the editors of Shakespeare's plays in the 18th c. (Rowe, Pope) made many “corrections” of the forms of pronouns: they corrected who and what to which with an inanimate antecedent, emended who to whom as an interrogative and relative pronoun in the function of object.[63] In this way they attempted to improve English syntax -- in line with the general tendency of 18th c. normalisators to make the language more logical and correct.

The development of English syntax at this stage of history -- as well as later -- was to a considerable extent determined by the formation and differentiation of styles which is beyond the scope of this course.

The infinitive is used in predicative constructions of three types: the objective with the infinitive construction, and the so-called for-to-infinitive construction*. Traditionally they are called the complex subject, the complex object, and the for-to-infinitive complex.

It is possible, however, to distinguish one more infinitive construction generally called the subjective infinitive construction or the nominative infinitive construction. (See § 123 on the Subjective predicative construction).

In all these constructions the infinitive denotes an action ascribed to the person or non-person, though grammatically this relationship is not expressed in form: the doer of the action may be represented by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective case (I saw himcross the street, it is for him to decide this) and the verbal element which is not in a finite form. Still, due to their semantics and because of the attached position the nominal and the verbal elements are understood as forming a complex with subject-predicate relationship.

The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or pronoun in the nominative case.

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence. One of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

Eg. Jane is said to resemble me. - Говорят , что Джейн похожа на меняю.

The Infinitive with the Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction cannot refer to a future action except with the verbs and word groups whose meaning allows of it: “to expect”, “to be sure”, “to be certain”, and “to be likely”.

Eg. We are sure to come at the heart of the matter . - Мы обязательно доберемся до сути дела.

He is expected to give us an answer tomorrow. - Ожидают, что он даст нам ответ завтра.

This fire is certain to produce a panic in the morning. - Этот пожар, беспорно (несомненно) вызовет утром панику.

The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used with the following groups of verbs in the Passive Voice.

1. With verbs denoting sense perception: “to see”, “to hear”, etc.

Eg. Mr. Mc'Cord was heard to laugh heartily. - Слышно было, как смеется мистер Мак Корд.

The rider was seen to disappear in the distance. - Видно было, как всадник скрылся вдали.

If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.

Eg. Jill's father was heard approaching at that moment. - В этот момент они услышали, что подходит отец Джилл.

The sentences (The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction) with the verbs denoting sense perception are translated into Russian by complex sentence.

2. With verbs denoting mental activity: “to think”, “to consider”, “to know”, “to expect”, “to believe”, “to suppose”.

Eg. He was thought to be honest and kindly. - Его считали честным и добрым человеком.

My father was considered by many to be a great man. - Многие считали моего отца незаурядным человеком.

The manuscript is believed to have been written in the 15th century. - Полагают , что эта рукопись написана в XV веке.

The sentences (The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction) with the verbs denoting mental activity can be translated into Russian both by simple and complex sentence.

3. With verb “to make”.

Eg. Little boy was aroused and made to put on his clothes. - Маленького мальчика разбудили и заставили одеться.

Parents made him to do his lessons. - Родители заставляли его учить уроки. (Simple sentence)

4. With verbs “to say” and “to report”.

Eg. The gods had given her dark-brown eyes and golden hair, which is said to be the mark of a weak character.

It should be noticed that after verbs in the Passive Voice the Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style, except with the verbs “to suppose”, “to expect”, “to make”. With these verbs the Subjective Infinitive can be found both in fiction and in colloquial language.

The Subjective Participial Construction. The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle l) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.

In rendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence is generally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal' (неопределенно-личное предложение).

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense perception.

A minute later he was seen engaged in a lively conversation.

The carriage was heard rolling up the gravel-walk. (Ch. Bronte)

In this construction the relation between the carriage and rolling up is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate. The whole construction the carriage... rolling up is the complex subject to the predicate was heard.

III. The For-to-Infinitive Construction

The For-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition “for”.

In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used. The construction can have different functions in the sentence. It can be:

1. Subject , often with the introductory “it”

Eg. I sometimes think it is shame for people to spend so much money this way.

2. Predicative

Eg. That was for him to find out.

3. Attribute

Eg. There is nobody here for him to play with.

4. Complex Object

Eg. He waited for her to speak . He asked for the papers to be brought.

5. Adverbial Modifier:

a) of result

Eg . He spoke loud enough for you to hear. He had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede.

b) of purpose

Eg. He stepped aside for me to pass .He spoke loud for me to hear. With the expressions “to be sorry”, “to be glad”, “to be pleased” the Infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the Infinitive, over wise a subordinate clause is used.

Eg. I am pleased to have got a ticket for the concert. I am glad to have seen you. I am glad you got a ticket for the concert IV. The Absolute Infinitive Construction.

The subject of the infinitive in all adverbial functions is the same person or thing as denoted by the subject of the sentence. But the Infinitive may also have a subject of its own with which it forms the so-called Absolute Construction with the Infinitive.

The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive is introduced by the preposition “with”. The Infinitive is used with the particle “to”.

The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive has the function of adverbial modifier of attending circumstances in the sentence.

Eg. Miss Jillian is bellow, Sir, with a carriage to take you home. - Сэр, мисс Джиллиан находится внизу, с экипажем, который отвезет Вас домой.

There are two parallel actions in this sentence. One of them is expressed by the predicate, the other - by the Infinitive. Each action has its own subject.

The Infinitive Absolute Construction is infrequent and found only in literary style.

The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive is introduced by the preposition “with”. The Infinitive is used with the particle “to”. The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive has the function of adverbial modifier of attending circumstances in the sentence.

The Infinitive Absolute Construction is infrequent and found only in literary style. That's why it is consider that in Modern English there are only three Predicative Constructions.

It should be noted that the Predicative Constructions with the Infinitive are translated into Russian by subordinate clause, but sometimes they can be translated by simple sentence.

Eg. The noise caused her to awake. - От шума она проснулась . (Simple sentence, Objective Infinitive Construction)

Jane is said to resemble me. - Говорят, что Джейн похожа на меняю . (Subordinate clause, Subjective Infinitive Construction)

A predicative complex is a syntactical unit intermediate between a phrase and a clause. It consists of two parts, the first denotes the doer of the action and the second one denotes the action itself. The first part of the predicative complex may be either a noun or a pronoun and is called a nominal part. The second part may be an infinitive, a participle, a gerund, an adjective, an adverb or a noun and is called a verbal part.

The for-to-infinitive construction is a predicative complex in which the nominal part is introduced by the preposition for, while the verbal part is an infinitive with the particle to. The construction can be used as an indirect object of certain verbs (ask, watch, etc.) and adjectives (anxious, eager, impatient, sorry, willing):

I watched for him to appear through the bushes.

Everybody was impatient for the experiment to begin.

The gerundial construction is a predicative complex with the predicate part expressed by a gerund. It may be either a direct or an indirect object in the sentence:

She liked his worrying about his wife.

He insisted on my claims being acknowledged.

The following predicative constructions can perform the function of an object only.

The for-to-infinitive construction

In the for-to-infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case introduced by the preposition for. The construction is used where the doer of the action (or the bearer of the state), expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of the finite verb (the predicate):

The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the infinitive is the same:	The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the infinitive is not the same:
He longed to see the truth. - Он очень хотел узнать правду. All I want is to get out of here for good. - Единственное, чего я хочу, - это навсегда уехать отсюда.	He longed for me to see the truth.- Он очень хотел, чтобы я узнал правду. All I want is for Jack to get out of here for good. - Единственное, чего я хочу, - это чтобы Джек навсегда уехал отсюда.

The for-to-infinitive construction has the same functions as a single infinitive, though with some restrictions.

1. Subject. The for-to-infinitive construction in the function of the subject usually occurs in sentences with the introductory it, though it is occasionally placed at the head of the sentence:

It was difficult for him to do anything else.

For me to hear him was disturbing.

2. Predicative. In this function the construction is mostly used with the link verb to be:

The best thing is for you to do it now.

3. Object. The construction functions as object of both verbs and adjectives:

a) She watched for the door to open.

I don't think I should care for it to be known.

b) His family were anxious for him to do something.

I'm so glad for you to have come at last.

4. Attribute:

There was no need for him to be economical.

5. Adverbial modifier of purpose and consequence:

She paused for him to continue.

The wall was too high for anything to be visible.

He had said enough for me to get alarmed.

In all its uses this construction is generally rendered in Russian by a subordinate clause.

The objective with the infinitive construction

In the objective with the infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case (hence the name of the construction). The whole construction forms a complex object of some verbs. It is rendered in Russian by an object clause.

The objective with the infinitive construction is used in the following cases:

1. After verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice and some others). In this case the only possible form of the infinitive is the non-perfect common aspect active voice form, used without the particle to:

No one has ever heard her cry.

I paused a moment and watched the tram-car stop.

The verb to listen to, though not a verb of sense perception, is used in the same way, with a bare infinitive:

He was listening attentively to the chairman speak.

If the verb to see or to notice is used with the meaning to realize, or the verb to hear with the meaning to learn, the objective with the infinitive construction cannot be used. Here only subordinate object clause is possible:



I saw that he did not know anything. I hear you have dropped the idea of leaving him. Не only had time to notice that the girl was unusually pretty.	Я видел (понимал), что он ничего не знает. Я слышала (узнала), что ты отказалась от мысли уйти от него. Он только успел заметить (осознать), что девушка была необычайно хорошенькой.

2. After verbs of mental activity (to think, to believe, to consider, to expect, to understand, to suppose, to find and some others). Here the infinitive is used in any form, though the non-perfect forms are the most frequent (always with the particle to).

I know him to be an honest man.

She believed him to have left for San Francisco.

I believed her to be knitting in the next room.

I should expect my devoted friend to be devoted to me

The complicated hierarchical structure of the sentence in Late ME and also correlation of connectives inherited from OE is illustrated by the opening stanza of Chaucer's CANTERBURY TALES.

3. After verbs of emotion (to like, to love, to hate, to dislike and some others). Here non-perfect, common aspect forms of the “to”- infinitive are the most usual.

I always liked him to sing.

She hated her son to be separated from her.

I'd love you to come with me too.

I hated him to have been sent away.

4. After verbs of wish and intention (to want, to wish, to desire, to intend, to mean and some others). After these verbs only non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive with the particle toare used:

He only wished you to be near him.

I don't want him to be punished.

5. After verbs of declaring (to declare, to pronounce):

I declare you to be out of your mind.

He reported the boat to have been seen not far away.

6. After verbs of inducement (to have, to make, to get, to order, to tell, to ask, etc.) of which the first two take a bare infinitive. In the construction some of them acquire a different meaning: make - заставить, get - добиться, have - заставить (сказать, чтобы ...)

I can't get him to do it properly.

She made me obey her.

7. The objective with the infinitive construction also occurs after certain verbs requiring a prepositional object, for example to count (up)on, to rely (up) on, to look for, to listen to, to wait for:

I rely on you to come in time.

Can't I count upon you to help me?

Predicative constructions with the Participle.

In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the Participle:

1) the Objective Participial Construction;

2) the Subjective Participial Construction;

3) the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction;

4) the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.

The Objective Participial Construction.

The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case.

He found her sitting at the breakfast-table. (Hardy)

Он обнаружил, что она сидит за столом для завтрака.

The participle sitting is in predicate relation to the pronoun her, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

In the Objective Participial Construction Participle I Indefinite Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object. It usually corresponds to a subordinate object clause in Russian. The Objective Participial Construction may be found:

a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc.

Then he looked out of the window and saw clouds gathering.

Потом он выглянул из окна и увидел, что собираются тучи.

On arriving at the cottage she found the door locked.

b) after some verbs of mental activity such as to consider, to understand.

I consider myself engaged to Herr Klesmer. (Eliot)

с) after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish, to desire. In this case only Participle II is used.

«I want it proved», he roared.

I want this typed, if you please. (Coppard)

d) after the verbs to have and to get. After these verbs only Participle II is used. This construction either expresses that something is done by someone else for the benefit of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence, or has the meaning of to experience, to witness.

I had my coat altered.

She has her dresses made here.

Не ... had several bottles of wine brought ... (Dreiser)

Get this prescription made at the chemist's.

Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the participle.

I had my window broken yesterday.

I don't intend to have my profession compromised.

It takes a long time to write a novel. And then you have to get

The Subjective Participial Construction. The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle l) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.

In rendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence is generally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal' (неопределенно-личное предложение).

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense perception.

A minute later he was seen engaged in a lively conversation.

The carriage was heard rolling up the gravel-walk. (Ch. Bronte)

In this construction the relation between the carriage and rolling up is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate. The whole construction the carriage... rolling up is the complex subject to the predicate was heard.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case.

... My eyes being very heavy, I lay down again and slept. (Dickens)

Although the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is formally independent of the sentence, it is logically connected with it, serving as an adverbial modifier to the predicate.

This construction is chiefly used in literary style.

In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction Participle I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This construction is generally rendered in Russian by means of an adverbial clause. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier:

a) of time.

This being done, they set off with light hearts. (Irving)

b) of cause.

Martin had to carry his water from the kitchen, there being no tap in the room. (London)

It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went up-stairs. (Dickens)

с) of attendant circumstances.

In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is mostly placed at the end of the sentence. In rendering it in Russian a coordinate clause оr деепричастный оборот is used.

Andrew lay with closed eyes, his head resting near her. (Cronin)

d) of condition (rare).

In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is almost exclusively used with the participles permitting and failing,

Weather (time, circumstances) permitting, we shall start tomorrow. Conciliation failing, force remains; but force failing, no further hope of conciliation is left.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very often occurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this construction in colloquial English is rare.



Conclusion

In conclusion it should be noted that the Predicative Constructions are the constructions consisting of two elements: a nominal (noun or pronoun) and verbal (Participle, Gerund or Infinitive). The verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominate element, that is to say in a relation similar to that between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. In most cases predicative constructions form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence.

In English there are three groups of predicative constructions. These are the constructions with Participle, Gerund, and Infinitive.

Participial, Gerundial and Infinitive constructions are highly varied. The structure of some of them is foreign to the Russian language, although their meaning can be fully conveyed in Russian with the help of forms, characteristic of Russian. The constructions are translated into Russian by objective, attributive, adverbial or other subordinate clauses.

1. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

2. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction

3. The For-to-Infinitive Construction

4. The Absolute Infinitive.

1. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence this construction has the function of a Complex Object.

2. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or pronoun in the nominative case.

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence. One of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

3. The For-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition “for”.

In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used. The construction can have different functions in the sentence. It can be: subject, predicative, attribute, complex, object, adverbial modifier (of result, purpose).

4. The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive is formed by the subject of the Infinitive which in all adverbial functions is the same person or thing as denoted by the subject of the sentence.

The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive is introduced by the preposition “with”. The Infinitive is used with the particle “to”. The Absolute Construction with the Infinitive has the function of adverbial modifier of attending circumstances in the sentence.

The Infinitive Absolute Construction is infrequent and found only in literary style. That's why it is consider that in Modern English there are only three Predicative Constructions.

It should be noted that the Predicative Constructions with the Infinitive are translated into Russian by subordinate clause, but sometimes they can be translated by simple sentence.

Eg. The noise caused her to awake. - От шума она проснулась. (Simple sentence, Objective Infinitive Construction)

Jane is said to resemble me. - Говорят, что Джейн похожа на меняю. (Subordinate clause, Subjective Infinitive Construction).



Bibliography

1. E.M. Gordon, I.P. Crylova “A Grammar of Present-day of English (Parts of Speech)” 2nd addition revised and enlarged In Moscow 1980 "High school".

2. Kaushansky V.L. «Grammar of English Language», Leningrad 1973.

3. Т.М.Novidsky, N.D. Kuchin "Practical Grammar of English language" 1979.

4. A.J. Thomson, A.V. Martinet “A Practical English Grammar.

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