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FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

Faculty of Humanities

GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF GENDER-NEUTRAL LANGUAGE

Kravchenko Anastasiia Aleksandrovna

Supervisor

S. A. Ryabchun, PhD

Moscow, 2020



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INTRODUCTION

1. GENDER LINGUISTICS

1.1 Approaches to gender linguistics

1.2 History of gender linguistics

1.3 The gender-neutral and invented pronouns

1.4 Forms of address

1.5 Gender-neutral vocabulary

1.6 Attitudes towards gender-neutral language

1.7 The feminist linguistic theory and reform

1.8 Criticism of the reform

2. PRACTICAL STUDY OF THE GENDER-NEUTRAL LANGUAGE PERCEPTION: SURVEY AND GENDER GAP ANALYSIS

2.1 Survey Analysis

2.2 Survey Results

2.3 Gender Gap Analysis

2.4. Gender Gap results

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

gender linguistics language perception pronoun



Introduction

A significant number of studies exist on the correlation between gender and language.Language plays a crucial role in constructing the reality around us. We form perceptions of people and articulate them through language. Language helps us to express opinions, thoughts, culture and attitudes of the speakers towards other people.

However, language is not gender-neutral. It is accepted as that as long as language has existed, there has always been a distinction between genders. References to gender raise the issue of the power of language to form gender stereotypes and promote biased attitudes towards gender representatives.

In this research, we hypothesize that there is a strong correlation between using gender-neutral or gender-inclusive language and achieving gender equality and that it is essential to raise public awareness on the issue of neutral language.

The key purpose of this research is to analyze how the notion of gender is represented in the English language and what tools and strategies are used to modify the language under the influence of the gender neutrality/equality movement.

The goals are the following:

1. To examine the concept of gender and gender-neutral language;

2. To define the most widely used strategies of language neutralization;

3. To explore the feminist linguistic theory and a new language policy;

4. To conduct a research and analyze the data.

In this research, the methods include qualitative and quantitative survey analysis and quantitative gender gap analysis. The research on the gender-neutrality awareness among second language learners will be carried out.

The object of the study is the perception of gender-neutral language. The subject of the paper is the inclusive forms of expression.

The research is divided into four sections, which are: introduction, theoretical part, practical part and conclusion.

As for the theoretical importance, a comprehensive review of academic works was provided on the subject.

The practical importance of the research is reflected in the survey on the second language learners' neutrality awareness. The data obtained could be further investigated.

Thus, the research is relevant for gender linguistics and intercultural communication studies, as it establishes possible correlations between language and gender equality and provides tools for using gender-neutral language.



1. Gender linguistics

1.1 Approaches to gender linguistics

An area of research which focuses on gender as a linguistic phenomenon is gender linguistics.

When it comes to the link between gender and languages, there are in essence a great number of approaches to this field of study.

First, it is important to mention that the word `gender' is a derivative of a word that means `class'. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2020) In this section of the graduate paper we concentrate on three major theories.

It is crucial to give definition to the concept of gender. The word `gender' can be defined in multiple ways. The dictionary provides us with the following definitions:

1. “a subclass within a grammatical class (such as noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb) of a language that is partly arbitrary but also partly based on distinguishable characteristics (such as shape, social rank, manner of existence, or sex) and that determines agreement with and selection of other words or grammatical forms.” ("Definition of GENDER", 2020)

2. “the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one sex.” ("Definition of GENDER", 2020)

First of all, we will examine gender from the perspective of gender sociology. It should be noted here that the content of the notion `gender' has been changing with societal and political development. Moreover, there is a whole spectrum of paradigms and perspectives on the notion of gender.

According to postmodernist feminism, gender is viewed as a product of cultural practices and power discourses. Postmodernist feminism challenges the traditional perception of gender as the biological origins of differences between males and females. It also argues that gender boundaries are not something fixed and immutable. (Zdravomyslova, Tyomkina, 2015)

In other words, the concept of gender is seen as a continuous action that is determined by social rules and norms. This perspective implies that gender is negotiable. It is safe to assume that gender serves as a representation of expectations that society places on men and women. It is a social institute that distinguishes masculinity and femininity. Today with the rise of feminist movement we can observe that traditional grammar rules concerning the category of gender are changing. It used to be widely accepted that masculine gender was universal to a whole set of lexemes. In modern day, academic papers more and more researchers tend to add feminine suffixes to these lexemes and implement feminine pronouns.

Social constructivism theory states that `gender' is the result of social interactions and the work of institutions. This theory enables us to see the origins of social inequality in societies. (Zdravomyslova, Tyomkina, 2015)

The category of gender may manifest itself in the form of symbols or specific language usage. (Conway, Bourque, & Scott, 1987) Notably enough, initially the meaning of `gender' used to encompass only the grammatical category of gender (masculine or feminine).

According to grammatical gender analysis, there is a direct link between language and gender identity. Hence, research on grammatical gender and language usage is closely intertwined with politics. The study of grammatical gender was central to feminist theory in the 1970-1980s. Traditional grammar rules frequently contradict non-sexist language norms. Several academic studies within this paradigm suggest that economic conditions, urban development and particular political ideologies have affected gender language. As a result, new forms of address, and self-reference have emerged in different languages. (McElhinny, 2003)

According to conversation analysis, this area of research remains to be highly disputable. It is still a topic of heated discussions what can be characterized as context for conversation analysis, what should be considered relevant information, and the way objectivity and political projects are interrelated. (Schegloff, 1999) Researchers who support conversation analysis paradigm pursue the objective to prove that gender is highly critical and indispensable for effective conversation.

As far as critical discourse analysis is concerned, this realm of research originated in Europe in the 1980s. Critical discourse analysis deals with studies of culture and anthropology. It aims to describe socio-political contexts. (McElhinny, 2003) Critical discourse analysis focuses on indicating how the study of race, class and social injustice relates to the study of language. The approach offers techniques for investigating intersection of gender, social structure and nationality. (Weatherall, 2006)

1.2 History of gender linguistics

he linguistic activism emerged in the 1960s when feminist community emphasized the issue of gender bias in language. (Pauwels, 2003). The issue of representation of women and men in language emerged when it was supposed that there was a link between language, communication patterns and gender. Some representatives of the feminist movement consider language to be a “powerful instrument of patriarchy”. (Pauwels, 1999). As a result, their purpose is to achieve gender equality on the linguistic level.

By the 1960s, it became evident that the concept of gender equality should be supported through changes to language. There was a concern that existing language system reinforced and expressed the gender inequalities.

Then the issue of language bias and sexism in language was further studied during the 1980's and 1990's. It was suggested that historically language developed as male-centric, for instance, as it was mentioned above, the pronoun “he” was used as a generic pronoun.It was suggested that the language was used as a tool to spread discrimination, which is covered as a linguistic norm.

Pauwels (1998), a feminist sociolinguist identified certain language practices that reflected gender inequality. Moreover, the scholar defined particular linguistic features of sexism in language.

R.Lakoff believed that certain language practices represented social imbalance in the position of men and women (Lakoff,1975). Aikhenvald states that English has “negative overtones ascribed to derivational forms of feminine Linguistic Gender.” (Aikhenvald, 2016)

Feminist activists and linguists are concerned with the key role of language in reinforcing gender inequality (Cameron,2000).

It was believed that language could produce sexist attitudes, which revealed a demand for language reform to address and eliminate sexism. Some scholars hypothesized that Linguistic Genders could reflect social changes through language reforms (Aikhenvald,2016).Liddicoat proves the necessity to implement changes by accepting the sexism inherent in English (Liddicoat,2011). Liddicoat justifies the necessity of language reform by emphasizing the aim of the reform to achieve the equality and support it via the language. He also reveals that women are more exposed to negative consequences of certain language patterns that imply promoting a negative valuing of them.

According to L.Boroditsky, a language researcher, it is suggested that grammatical gender can subconsciously affect the way people perceive the world and their ideas of concrete objects (Boroditsky,2009). Therefore, gendered language could profoundly affect the way people perceive women and their status in a certain society.

What does the notion of gender equality encompass? The concept of gender equality can be defined as “equal enjoyment by women and men of socially-valued goods, opportunities, resources, and rewards”. (Inclusive Security and DCAF, 2017)

As it can be seen from the given definition, the problem of gender equality is connected to public policy; it is quite a political subject. However, still a lot has to be done in order to achieve gender equality. In most societies across the globe, women and feminine traits are frequently undervalued. In contrast, men and traits associated with masculinity are put in a privileged position. In other words, males have greater access to power and wealth, they occupy top leadership posts and dominate the sphere of decision-making and legislation. At the same time, rights of women tend to be undermined, they lack representation in politics, top management and community life. (Courtenay, 2000) Therefore, this leads to the conclusion that the main goal of gender equality is ensure equitable access to valuable recourses, and guarantee equal engagement in personal and public relations.

Shute believed that it is possible to eliminate sexism in the society by combating sexist language and gender stereotypes (Shute, 1981).

However, it should be taken into account that there is a difference between the gender-neutral and non-sexist language.According to Frank and Treichler, gender-neutral is a linguistic term which means that the reference is “linguistically unmarked for gender”, while a non-sexist term implies a social function as it is aimed to eliminate sexism in the society (Frank & Treichler, 1989)

The feminist linguistic theory is based on the premise that language unconsciously emphasizes gender aspect in the negative prospective.

There are certain evidence that the process of language reformation has already started. The scholars created special handbooks on how to avoid sexist language. They describe certain linguistic tools, both lexical and grammar, using which contributes to the process of language neutralization.

There exist numerous strategies to make the language gender-neutral. According to the European Parliament gender-neutral language guidelines, gender-neutral language implies speaking and writing in a way that excludes discrimination against “particular sex, social gender or gender identity and does not perpetuate gender stereotypes”. (UN (n.d.).

The most widely used alternatives are:

· Alternative forms of address

· The usage of neutral words instead of personal pronouns

· Omitting the gendered word

· Usage of passive constructions

· General change of the sentences/phrases

Similar strategies can be found in the works of Pauwels (1998) and Miller and Swift (1981).Using gender-neutral language has become widespread for academic, media and political purposes. The ubiquity of such handbooks clearly demonstrates that extensive awareness on the issue was created within the global community. Furthermore, a wide range of European international organizations have adopted the above mentioned principles of gender-neutral/gender-inclusive language.

Male bias is a well-researched question when it comes to gender linguistics. (Hellinger & Bussmann, 2002, Bem, 1993) That is why some researches assume that the rules of the English language need to undergo certain transformations so that the language is more gender neutral. It would be fair to say that by implementing specific strategies it is possible to make English more inclusive.

In English, it is traditionally accepted that if the gender of a person is not specified, one may use masculine form of reference. This can be considered as a manifestation of so called “male bias”. (Lindqvist, Renström & Gustafsson Sendén, 2018) One way of making the English language more inclusive is to apply a strategy of feminization. Furthermore, another possible solution is to use an approach that implies neutralization. (Sczesny, 2015). The strategy of feminization serves to enhance female representation in language while neutralization attempts to eliminate any gender specifications.

In English, the following example can be provided: one can use personal pronouns he/she, which contributes to higher level of female visibility. However, the English language lacks nouns that could be potentially referred to as masculine or feminine.

As far as neutralization is concerned, this strategy is quite typical of the English language. (Prewitt-Freilino, 2012) The method suggests that instead of traditionally masculine category of reference it is possible to use words that encompass both masculine and feminine genders associations. For instance, one may use forms without suffixes (actor, actress, actor). In addition to this, the strategy of neutralization enables us to use brand new forms of reference instead of words with a clear masculine representation. One may replace the word `salesman' with the term `salesperson', `steward or `stewardess' with gender neutral form `flight attendant'. (Lindqvist, Renström & Gustafsson Sendén, 2018)

One more option available for avoiding being gender specific is the use of passive constructions. According to English grammar rules, the category of voice denotes the relation between the subject and the verb. This category describes the way certain action is done. One may use active voice to put emphasis on the doer of the action. The category of passive voice, on the contrary, stresses that particular subject acts as a `receiver' of some action. Thus, passive constructions help to make English more gender neutral since in passive voice, the performer does not need to be specified at all.

1.3 The gender-neutral and invented pronouns

Aikhenvald states that linguistic gender in English is expressed thorough personal pronouns. However, the researcher identifies a clear need to create or define a general form that could be used to refer to all genders without specifying the latter.

There is no third-person singular gender-neutral pronoun; there occurs one of the biggest challenges for gender-inclusive communication in English, which is “the use of the masculine form by default”. (UN (n.d.) For instance, it used to be quite common to use personal pronoun “he” which followed the noun and referred to “person”.

Aikhenvald claims that there has been a significant alteration in the grammar of English, specifically in the usage of pronouns. The researcher also links the ongoing change in the social genders representation and the use of gendered pronouns, particularly “he” that was previously regarded as a generic one which is used when the gender is unknown or irrelevant.

Generally, there are three groups of the third-person singular personal pronouns.

? he

The pronoun “he” is used to refer to the male subject or to something which supposedly can be characterised as male. He is also considered to be a generic pronoun.

· she

The pronoun “she” is used to refer to the female subject or to something which supposedly can be characterised as female respectively.

? it

The pronoun “it” refers to inanimate or intangible objects.

There a historical inequality between male and female can be observed.

The common practice of generic masculine nouns and pronouns has been an accepted grammatical norm in the English language. Thus, the use of feminine alternatives would violate the grammar norms.

Since the twentieth century feminists have perceived the generic pronoun he as the reflection of bias and male dominance expressed through the language. `he' was considered to be “pseudo-generic”. (Aikhenvald,2016)

These concerns were substantiated by the fact that the tendency to perceive he as male was revealed.

Aikhenvaldjustifies the above mentioned concerns as she links the use of generic pronoun he with the “presumed supremacy of the male social gender.”

Thus, linguistic feature reflects social attitudes towards the social roles of men and women. The choice of `he' as a generic pronoun is believed to subsume female gender under male that makes women invisible in the society. The researcher highlights this language pattern to be a clearly sexist language manifestation.

Due to the ongoing process of moving towards gender-neutral language it has become more common to use possible alternatives which are `he/she', `s/he' or neutral `they'.

Mills in Language and Sexism states that according to Hellinger and Pauwels (2007) studies revealed that North American and Australasian- English speakers use generic `they' in 60- 70 per cent of cases.

Some scholars have developed an approach that implies implementation of a common gender pronoun instead of he (Jespersen,1894). There have also been alternatives for gender-neutral pronouns implemented by Weslevan University in order to refer to LGBT community. Data collected reveals that such pronouns as `ze' and `zir', and `hir' have become increasingly common.

Moreover, In English, some feminists suggest introducing the pronoun `she' as a generic one. Mills states that this case clearly illustrates that both pronouns he and she are not applicable to language as they are gender specific terms. (Mills, 2008).

1.4 Forms of address.

Another example of gender markers is the forms of addresses, which are distinguished as “Mr.,” “Miss,” and “Mrs.” This linguistic practice of address focuses on women's marital status. Whereas “Mr.” refers to any man, regardless of his marital status,, “Miss” and “Mrs.” basically are used to refer to women only according to their marital status. A married woman will be traditionally addressed as a Mrs.

The current western tradition implies that women take on their fathers' and then husbands' names. Aikhenvald claims that this practice makes women invisible to the society and diminishes their achievements. The researcher also believes such tradition has always put women at the disadvantaged position as they were overpowered by men (Aikhenvald,2016). Pauwels states that this practice marks women's status as practically men's property or theit subordinates (Pauwels,1998).

Aikhenvald also highlights that, in contrast, the tradition to address a man implies only one option; no special forms of address are used to refer to unmarried men. However, there is Master in English, but it is used to indicate the age rather than the marital status. This difference in approaches to naming in language reflects the lack of equality between genders within the society(Aikhenvald, 2016).Therefore,the male gender is seen as primary and dominant, while female gender is considered minor and submissive.

However, there exists a gender-neutral alternative when referring to a woman that is using a neutral form “Ms.” Most importantly, this form of address does not imply the knowledge of a woman's marital status.The term “Ms” in English was added toOxford English Dictionary Online in 1901 and was later accepted as an alternative to avoid marking marital status. In particular, it was revealed that written Business communication has been profoundly modified as the form “Ms” “is more than 9 times as frequent as Mrs. and Miss”. (Fuertes-Olivera, 2007).

1.5 Gender-neutral vocabulary

Lexical expressions of gender are considered to be a further manifestation of gender inequality and sexism in language. These expressions incorporate:

1) The absence of words that could be used to refer to women or men in certain positions, roles and professions, where gender is defined.

2) The usage of male terms to refer to generic classes of people.

The inequality between men and women within the society is highly prominent in the existing lexicon.

There has always been a pattern to use “male” terms to refer to professions in general, as men were seen as the main representatives in certain fields and a norm.Nowadays some activists have identified clearly patriarchal vocabulary (Pauwels, 1999).

Furthermore, if we speak about academic or professional fields, it is more likely that nouns referring to professions are substituted by male form. According to gender stereotype, men are more successful and outnumber women in academic/professional stage.

There are numerous examples of nouns that were created to refer to women, that are considered to be derogatory. For instance, the word woman is derived from man. This peculiarity is believed to show women as a “deviation” from the norm.Some nouns are explicitly masculine or feminine (waiter/ waitress, host/ hostess, landlord/ landlady).As for the derogatory forms, the above-mentioned principle is also applicable to the gender-neutral term “teacher”. The fact is that the term is commonly used to refer to the workers of kindergartens, the field that is traditionally dominated by females representatives. This pattern explicitly illustrates the fact that certain areas of domesticity are still considered to be feminine.

Suffix -ette, which serves to create a female form of the noun, implies negative overtones (suffragette was originally invented as a negative reference).MacMillan Dictionary informs that the London Daily Mail's journalist Charles E. Hands attempted to attach derogatory and negative connotation to this term.

Therefore there was a tendency to perceive women as a “weaker sex”, when men were “the stronger sex” (Aikhenvald,2016). Such reference demonstrates the existing gender inequality between men and women as men are supposed to be in the superior position.

Moreover, it is completely inappropriate to use words “man” and “mankind” referring to humans and humanity. That raises the issue of women being invisible and perceived as an “exception” from a male norm.

It was not until the moment women became active participants of the job market which was previously considered to be male dominant, when it became obvious there is a need reform the language and to invent new gender-neutral words that do not refer to gender.

These words serve to highlight a break in gender norms. This occurs when typically the word is used to refer to a man, usually in regard to power, which is supposed to be exercised primarily by men. The ongoing process of emancipation and feminization has led to the increase in the level of equality in Western countries and it also increased the number of derivational forms with female reference (Aikhenvald,2016). The most notable examples are words like Lady Doctor or Manageress. The emergence of these words and the necessity of using them demonstrate that social and gender norms are violated.

However, in English nouns that refer to women are seen to convey negative connotations, therefore there is a demand for gender-unmarked alternatives. The researchers have identified that there are clear positive connotations/implications for nouns that refer to male, whereas negative connotations of “female” words are explicitly expressed in the lexicon and derivational forms in English.

There raises the question of using gender-neutral terms that contribute to avoiding sexist language and make women visible. The existing generic nouns for professions cover representatives of all genders, for instance poet and actor. However, the female nouns poetess and actress acquire a distinct negative overtone as if women are less professional.

Even though there are also exceptions (nurse) which demonstrate that there are certain traditionally female professions, they reinforce the idea of inequality. This field has been historically dominated by women and it is not prestigious and it is a common practice to refer to nurses as females. Whereas when referring to men, their gender will be marked by adding male-nurse, which creates toxic gender stereotypes.Also, further studies revealed that in some cases female professionals are specified as women, for example, “female judge,” “woman engineer,” and “woman politician. The theory highlights the necessity to remove words like the ones mentioned above as they contribute to preserving toxic gender norms.

The new forms, that could be applicable to all genders, are expected to change the social status of the representatives of different genders. This process is called gender neutralization. The same neutral term is determined to address all genders and gender-marked stereotypical terms would cease to be in usage. The aim is not only to prevent using sexist words or claims, but to remove words like this since they contribute to sustaining unhealthy gender norms. In this way, the theory addresses the root of the problem directly through profound changes.

However, Aikhenvald observes that the policy of gender neutralization is not effectively applicable to English as even if the terms used are neutral, they tend to have a male reference after all. It is quite clear that in sentences with male pronouns, readers or listeners tend to associate them predominantly with men due to the invisibility of women in language. Apparently, the goal of this approach is to implement major social changes through language reform.

1.6 Attitudes towards gender-neutral language

In this paragraph, we explore the relationship between the usage of gender-neutral language and attitude towards gender inclusion. Discrimination in English is primarily manifested in the use of generic masculine pronouns (`he'), and lexical asymmetries. (Sarrasin, Gabriel & Gygax, 2012) It is traditionally believed that sexist language is linked to gender discrimination. (Lakoff, 1975)

We may presume that gender-neutral language is able to transform attitudes towards gender equality and a whole spectrum of gender identities and contribute to a more positive perception of gender diversity in societies.

However, at the same time, some scholars claim that discrimination reflected in language is virtually non-existent. (Mucchi-Faina, 2005) In addition to this, when it comes to the usage of gender-neutral expressions, some proportion of people may experience certain difficulties. In other words, gender-neutral forms of expression in the English language can be rather unrefined, heavy and too circumlocution. (Sarrasin, Gabriel & Gygax, 2012) However, the underlying cause of such preconception seems to be sexist bias.

According to the research conducted by Parks and Roberton, (Parks and Roberton, 2004) there is a positive correlation between the support of sexist judgments and refusal to incorporate gender-neutral language in one's speech. Parks and Roberton put emphasis on the fact that women demonstrate higher degree of endorsement when it comes to gender-neutral language. Moreover, according to this study, it is claimed that another crucial factor to take into consideration is the age group. Representatives of older age demonstrate more acceptance and positivity toward language neutrality.

Another crucial point to highlight here is that contexts have a great impact on the perception of gender-neutral language. Differently put, linguistic peculiarities of different languages are believed to determine the efficiency of policies concerning gender-neutral language. As there is no gender assigned to nouns the English language can be quite flexible for the implementation of new rules.

In the United Kingdom, one of the first fixed set of rules aimed at implementing gender-neutral language was incorporated in the second half of the twentieth century (National Council of Teachers of English, 1975) with governmental support. That brings us to the conclusion that in the UK, official authorities actively promoted the usage of gender-neutral language.

1.7 The feminist linguistic theory and reform

The feminist language reform concerns language modification aimed to change how language is used to refer to gender on both individual and societal levels. (Liddicoat, 2011).

Gender-related language reform emerged as a tool to address the social changes in the relationships between genders that are reflected in the language and reproduced through it.It is believed that if the language promotes, reflects gender awareness and responds to the social policy, than it indicates that the language articulates social realities through accurate linguistic choices.

There have been several attempts to reform the language in accordance with the acknowledgement of human rights in the history of humanity. The language is expected to express social changes linguistically.

It was believed that the language could serve as a powerful tool in constructing the social realities and promoting profound social changes. Feminist activists demanded their rights to be reflected in language, which entailed language modifications or language reform. The reform advocates the usage of gender-neutral or gender-inclusive language that is aimed at eliminating gender stereotypes, protecting the rights of women and acknowledging all genders.

A new gender policy indicates that there is a social demand for the widespread use of gender-neutral language. The ongoing language changes reflect that the cultural paradigm is going through significant changes as well, it demonstrates that they are closely interlinked.

The key principle of the linguistic reform is to raise public awareness on the subject of gender equality at the linguistic level. The prevalence of gender-neutral language reflects the key role of language in changing social dynamics.

The gender-inclusive language focuses on the protecting of human rights and ensuring gender equality and stability on both social and individual levels.

The reform demonstrates that there has been a significant shift in social status of genders, which should be expressed in the language. The changes imply eliminating the use of masculine generic pronouns, implementing neutral alternatives and gender-neutral forms of address. The goal is to highlight the equality of genders un the society on the linguistic level
(Mills,2008).The recognition of the need for language reform indicates that the members of the society are aware of the ongoing social changes and their importance to the community.

The feminist Language Reform reveals the problem, which is that the most words oppress women. This occurs when typically the word is used to refer to a man, usually concerning power, which is supposed to be exercised primarily by men.

Moreover, Feminist community has claimed that non gender-neutral language can have a profound impact on gender relations and the relative status of men and women. (Boroditsky, 2009).Feminist activists demanded that the language reflected the changes in the public sphere.

The feminist linguistic theory entails the usage of alternative terms that do not highlight the gender and are not formed as male derivations and “involves proposing new lexical items to address sexism in language” (Aikhenvald,2016). The terms include a few nouns that traditionally ended in -man and now are replaced by more neutral equivalents that are more commonly used and are considered to be gender-inclusive i.e. chair/chairperson for chairman, police officer for policeman/policewoman, firefighter for fireman. It should be highlighted that it is pivotal to avoid using gender-specific job titles.

Also, the theory focuses on the words that are perceived as offensive such as cleaning lady or air hostess.

However, the principles of the above-mentioned reform are not advocated by the whole feminist community. Some activists believe in eliminating gender distinctions, whereas there are those who support the distinction of feminine and masculine terms in order to emphasize the social status of women.

Mills states that the language reform has already successfully started and the researcher proves the success of the reform in the form of certain achievements. The achievements include the elimination of generic term man and pronoun he in English which makes the language less biased towards other genders. Our world has already achieved some progress towards gender equality and such significant shifts inevitably have affected the language and led to lasting changes in practice.

Even though there is no universal agreement on the use of generic gender-neutral pronoun, the efforts to create one has led to certain achievements, this process enhanced the pattern of the demise of the gendered terms (Mills,2008). Recent studies suggest that gender-neutral pronouns not only reduce bias towards men, but also promotes positive emotions to women and LGBT representatives. The idea proves that even a minor shift in language can boost moving towards equality. The project to implement the above-mentioned principles and changes has been widely discussed and is effective in developing linguistic equality.

Those who support the view that gender-neutral linguistic devices should be promoted point out that these strategies help to create more positive perceptions of females, gays, lesbians, transgender and non-binary people. (Sczesny, Formanowicz and Moser, 2016) In essence, gender inclusive language heightens visibility of minority groups. As a result, one may observe increased tolerance toward women and members of the LGBT community in politic, science, economic sphere and cultural life. (McGoldrick, 2016)

Some scholars also identify the critical role of gender-inclusive language for non-binary, transgender and genderqueer representatives as the existing gender specific language can be regarded as offensive due to its exclusionary norms and practices. Another effect gender neutral language may entail is mitigating the persistence of traditional gender roles, which also contributes to greater minority inclusion.

However, there are concerns that the most widely used and prevalent strategy of replacing sexist and gendered words does not address the issue of seism at the level of sentence and the text on the whole. Pauwels highlights that this strategy has certain significant limitations (Cameron 1998).

Mills explores the issue of social attitudes towards the language reform. It is stated that the ongoing changes may be perceived as intrusive and that the society may accuse the activists of challenging “individual autonomy and freedom of speech” (Mills,2008).

However, Pauwels (2003) argues that even though there are claims that there is no gender bias that is reflected through language, the reform will clearly demonstrate that the social awareness of the issue of gender inequality has been raised.

There the underlying principle of the language reform can be observed. The reform is aimed to draw public attention to the issue and to embody the social changes in the status of genders.

Cameron (1995) suggests that issuing guidelines for language usage is based on a simplistic model of language and language change. Simply replacing anoffensive word with a neutral word does not for her mean that you eliminate sexist language.

However, the scholars have questioned the premise that the language reform alone is able to change the perception of gender roles in the society. Mills states that the key to success is to implement a new gender policy into the existing institutions (Mills,2003). There have been a great number of attempts to implement gender-neutral language, however, some scholars remain pessimistic about the further adoption of the new gender policy. According to Teso and Crolley (2013), it is believed that there is still a substantial gap between the initial principles of the initiative and its implementation into practice. This could profoundly affect the process of adoption of a new gender policy.

Liddicoat (2011) also highlights the necessity to establish certain language patterns and communication practices in order to have an impact on the society. Also, the language reforms needs to receive an official and public support to be effective and universal.

Therefore, the global success of the reform depends on the adoption of the new gender policy by official language institutions/agencies.

European Parliament and the United Nations are among of the institutions that promotes the usage of gender-inclusive language. However, both organizations primarily focus on the replacement of certain words with alternative terms that is the lexical level of the text only. For instance, the documents suggest the alternative “staff” instead of clearly gendered term “manpower” (Papadimoulis, 2018, (UN, n.d).



1.8 Criticism of the reform

However, there are opponents of integrating gender inclusive norms into language. Gender inclusive approach has received a great amount of criticism.

One of the most common points of argument is that the existing linguistic rules should be preserved. (Vergoossen, Renström, Lindqvist & Gustafsson Sendén, 2020)The supporters of this view are inclined to believe that language transformations are too complicated and inefficient. They are convinced that the particular language does not need to undergo any changes. Moreover, there is an opinion that it is rather challenging to get used to new neutral forms of expressions. Some people tend to believe that some gender-neutral forms of reference can be rather ambiguous and unclear in terms of their practical implementation.

Another aspect that should be highlighted is neglect towards people who do not belong to binary system. Due to sexist beliefs, some people cannot see the need for gender-neutral language. (Vergoossen, Renström, Lindqvist & Gustafsson Sendén, 2020) Those who endorse this position are inclined to assume that only few people are discriminated against by gendered language. Therefore, it is suggested that certain language should maintain status quo. Another argument against gender inclusive language that falls into this category is that information about one's gender identity is not relevant or pivotal when it comes to communication. Furthermore, those who oppose the view that gender neutral language needs to be introduces suggest that the incorporation of gender neutral language into our speech cannot result in a higher index of gender equality. (Vergoossen, Renström, Lindqvist & Gustafsson Sendén, 2020)

According to this statement, changes in language are irrelevant since they do not contribute to any real difference. It is assumed that instead of creating new words and means of expression, one has to concentrate on steps that are more effective.



2. Practical study of the gender-neutral language perception: survey and gender gap analysis

2.1 Survey Analysis

A survey is the first essential part of the research, which is supposed to provide data on the perception of the English language as neutral among second language learners and reveal the most widely used strategies of gender-neutralization used by the learners.

The survey encompassesmixed methodology and to analyze gender equality gap we applied quantitative method.

In order to carry out an extensive empirical research, an online survey has been conducted aimed at collecting data on the revealing the most widely used strategies of gender-neutralization used by the second language learners . The online format was selected as a preferable option due to the fact that its convenience made it possible to collaborate with a large number of people on a wide geographical basis. Moreover, Google survey provides the researcher with the opportunity to integrate participants on a voluntary and anonymous basis thatmakes the completion process comfortable and effortless for the participants. It is expected that the respondents feel free to answer any questions, motivated to provide answers and participate actively.

At the stage 1 of the research the survey was designed in English to explore the phenomenon of gender-neutrality awareness among the Second Language Learners. The online survey comprises questions of different types aimed at revealing the most widely used strategies of gender-neutralization in the English language and general awareness of gender-inclusion in the language. In addition, the respondents were expected to provide answers on whether they perceive English as a gender-inclusive language that respects all genders and identities. The target audience was selected on the basis of age, occupation and language proficiency. Thus, the sample of survey respondents was limited to Higher School of Economics University students aged 18-23.

The survey can be divided into certain sections, which encompass personal info, grammatical strategies of gender neutralization and the level of inclusion reflected through the English language. The Google form comprised ten questions in general, three multiple-choice questions, three open-ended questions, one scale question, one yes/no question and two questions were to collect personal data.

Stage 2. As for the procedure, the potential forty-five respondents got an access to the survey, the participants were not limited in time, and their activity was not monitored. Personal data needed for the research involved age and gender identity only.

Questions ¹3and ¹4 wereto choose the appropriate personal pronoun to fill in the gaps. “What word(s) would you use in the gap? If your friend is thinking about a part-time job, _can get good tips from this website/A researcher has to be objective in _____________findings.” The respondents were allowed to answer freely and select the option they find suitable.

Question ¹5 “Would you use these words in your speech? Policeman, chairman, mankind.” was limited to yes/no option.

Question ¹6 “What are the alternatives for the words Policeman, chairman, mankind?” was open-ended question, which enables the respondents to express their views clearly and comprehensively.

Question ¹7 “Have you ever heard or used the pronoun ze (zie) as a neutral pronoun?” provides the participants with three available options such as: “I have never heard and never used/I have never used, but have heard/ I have heard and used.

Question ¹8 is a multiple-choice question. “What would you choose to convey the message, if the gender is not specified? The client phoned,_ will be in a minute.” The possible strategies involve the following:

· Use passive construction

· He

· They

· Use plural form (people)

· Change the whole sentence

· Your option

Question ¹9“What option would you use in your speech? ” provides the respondents with possible strategies to construct a sentence.

· When the winner is selected, he will get the prize.

· When the winner is selected, they will get the prize.

· When the winner is selected, the prize will be sent.

· When the winner is selected, the jury will send the prize.

· A prize will be sent to the winner, selected by the jury.

· Your option

Question ¹10 is a scale question, where 1 stands for “completely disagree” and 5 is “completely agree”. The statement is “The English language is inclusive(neutral) and repsects all genders and identities.” The participants are to choose the corresponding number according to their disagreement/ agreement with the statement.

· 2 stands for “disagree”;

· 3 for “not sure”;

· 4 for “agree”.

Stage 3: Expected Results. The survey was expected to shed light on the awareness of gender inclusion in the English language among the second language learners and to reveal the most widely used strategies of gender-neutralization.

Personal data was collected to define what age group and gender prevailed in the sample of respondents. It it anticipated that the participants aged 18-23 were aware of the gender-neutral approach and universally accepted changes in the language. Also, it is anticipated that women would be advocating the use of gender-neutral words, expressions and sentences in the speech. The survey was also aimed at revealing the extent to which the English language is perceived as neutral to second language learners.

Questions ¹3 and ¹4 “What word(s) would you use in the gap? If your friend is thinking about a part-time job, _can get good tips from this website/A researcher has to be objective in _____________findings.” were designed to reveal a pattern of the usage of generic pronoun he/his. It is expected that the majority of the respondents would choose the gender-neutral options “they/their/one/one's” as preferable and would avoid using gender-specific masculine form “he/his”, although previously this form had been regarded as a generic one. It would prove the assumption ¹1 that the usage of generic pronoun “he” is no longer regarded as appropriate.

Question ¹5 “Would you use these words in your speech? Policeman, chairman, mankind.” was designed to define the awareness of gender-neutral lexical means. It is expected that the respondents tend to avoid using clearly gendered words in their speech as there are gender-neutral alternatives, which are not male-centric. Especially, it is anticipated that the participants prefer avoiding gender-specific terms referring to professions that have been traditionally regarded as male-dominated. The participants were supposed to answer in the negative, in particular, that they do not use the above-mentioned words. The results are expected to support assumption ¹2 that words traditionally ended in -man and that are formed from “man” are commonly replaced by gender-neutral alternatives and therefore are not used in the speech by second language learners.

Question ¹6 “What are the alternatives for the words Policeman, chairman, mankind?” is aimed at identifying whether the participants are aware of possible lexical means of neutralizing the language. It is expected that the respondents are able to provide gender-neutral alternatives that serve to replace gender-specific words. Questions ¹5 and ¹6 intersect as those who answer in the affirmative (who use the words in the speech) are not expected to be able to provide alternatives. The assumption ¹3 is that if respondents tend to use generic nouns, they are not aware of possible alternatives. It can also demonstrate the necessity to promote gender-neutrality in the language as second language learners might sound offensive in their communication.

Question ¹7 “Have you ever heard or used the pronoun ze (zie) as a neutral pronoun?” was designed to figure out the attitudes towards the invented pronoun that serves to respect all gender identities without any specifications. The aim was to reveal whether the respondents are familiar with the existing alternative, even though the invented pronouns are not widely accepted as universal. The usage of the pronouns illustrates the awareness on the issue of LGBT+ that is reflected through language.

Question ¹8 “What would you choose to convey the message, if the gender is not specified? The client phoned,_ will be in a minute.” assumes that the respondents opt for the most suitable and appropriate strategy of gender-neutralization from the list suggested to them. The assumption ¹4 presupposes that the most widely used strategies are the usage of plural nouns to substitute the personal pronoun; the use of personal pronoun “they” as a generic singular pronoun and the implementation of passive constructions as a grammatical tool. It is anticipated that the masculine pronoun “he” is not likely to be selected.

Question ¹9 “What option would you use in your speech?” was designed to reveal the most widely used strategy of sentence construction. Practically all the suggested strategies can be regarded as gender-neutral, however, the survey excludes one example which is “When the winner is selected, he will get the prize.” due to the fact that the sentence in constructed with the use of generic masculine pronoun "he". This question also contributes to exploring the assumption ¹4 that was described previously.

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