The use of the present perfect in British English and American English

With respect to relevance to the moment of speech, the results appeared to vary substantially. In the first case the majority of both Britons and Americans opted for the PP (situation 1). Contrastingly, in the second context only half of the British respondents picked the PP, whereas the minority of Americans used the PP (situation 5). It may be concluded that relevance to the present moment is not always obvious for native speakers. Moreover, the findings confirm the idea that the use of the PP Resultative is mostly governed by the speaker's perception of the situation. Based on the second case, we may assume that Americans see the relevance to the current moment less frequently than Britons. What is more interesting is that the context for the fifth situation was retrieved from English literature, which means that the way the PP functions in real life contrasts with that used in the books.

2.2 Design of the modified questionnaire

In order to gain knowledge on the status of the PP nowadays, a correlational study was chosen with a new questionnaire as a method. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied to obtain data. First, we tested the statement that Americans select the SP more often than British people. Second, we attempted to pinpoint new tendencies in the use of the PP. The questionnaire was carried out online as it is anonymous and fast and presents data in a systematic way. It was decided to choose the questionnaire as a method since the previous studies concerning the PP were of a diachronic approach and focused on corpora (Bao et al., 2018; Hundt & Smith, 2009; Yao, 2014). The modified questionnaire would provide us with more information on how native speakers employ the PP and its counterpart SP in day-to-day life.

The questionnaire was conducted among people born and raised in Great Britain or the USA. Hence, they speak either BrE or AmE respectively. Participants were selected via language applications on the Internet (HelloTalk, Tandem, and Interpals). Thus, the sampling in the research was of a random type. Google Forms were chosen as the platform for the questionnaire.

The test consisted of two parts, namely formal questions and situations themselves. The formal questions remained the same in comparison with the previous questionnaire and included the country of origin, age, and occupation (optional question). We assumed that belonging of a person to a particular professional sphere or age group might have influenced the decision between the PP and the SP. The number of the situations was six since a lower number of contexts might have been inadequate to reach firm conclusions. In contrast, a greater number of questions could have reduced an interest of the participants and affected the precision of the data obtained. perfect grammatical verb

As original figures received in the questionnaire were used for the analysis, the type of data was primary. The six questions were closed-ended and comprised the contexts with the choice of the PP and the SP. This questionnaire was a modified version of the survey undertaken before (section 2.1).The study conducted last year was a trial version and encompassed situations of a different focus. It attempted to reveal new tendencies with regard to the employment of the PP and investigated the influence of the adverbials of time, interrogative sentences, and the presence of situational relevance on the choice of the participants. One of the main findings demonstrated that native speakers may often use a different tense than that employed in English literature (Trublovskaya, 2019). Hence, a further investigation was needed to obtain more information in this regard.

For this questionnaire the cases with the use of the PP were taken from fiction books written by English authors. In all of the examples some relevance to the current moment is implied. Nevertheless, based on the grammar rules, both the PP and the SP would be possible to use in them since the evaluation of the past event tends to be subjective (Greenbaum, 1996; Thomson & Martinet, 1986). The extracts were further modified (e.g., names were changed) for the sake of objectivity. In the questions the participants had to pick the variant that they were more likely to employ in their everyday lives.

The main purpose of the questionnaire was to grasp which tense first occurs to the native speaker rather than which one is grammatically correct in their opinion and whether their choice is affected by the variety of English. The idea was to analyse how the speakers from the UK and the US perceive the connection of the past actions with the present moment. It was also crucial to understand whether deviation from the books regarding the use of the PP is present and to what extent. Thus, the correlation between two variables was examined in the research: a certain extract retrieved from the English book and the inclination of the speaker towards either the PP or the SP encouraged by the situation. First, we analysed statistically the figures obtained through the survey in order to substantiate the chief hypothesis. Next, we planned to consider each case in more detail so as to find out new tendencies.

In the table below the format of the questionnaire and the content of the questions are presented. The original versions of the extracts can be found in Appendix 1. It was anticipated that Britons would select the PP forms more often than American participants. We also expected that British participants would violate the grammar rules in some cases and pick the SP.

Table 3. The content of the modified questionnaire

3. Results and discussion

This chapter is of a significant importance since it is concerned with the main findings and outcomes of the research described above. Limitations of the study undertaken are also considered and recommendations for future research are given.

3.1 Findings of the modified questionnaire

The number of the participants in the survey was 40 (20 from each country). The gender of the participants was not taken into account. The age and occupation as particular criteria should be discussed in more detail.

Age. With respect to the age of the participants, most age groups were present. Almost half of the respondents belong to the millennial generation and are of 21-30 years old (38%). As outlined in some papers, the speech of those raised in the era of informational technologies and the spread of AmE might have been affected by these factors (Ochs et al., 1996; Yao & Collins, 2013). Hence, attention should be paid to this concept when analysing the data received. The smallest group of the participants was of 31-40 years old and constituted 8%. The other age groups, namely 41-50 years old, 51-60 years old, and over 60 years old constituted 18%, 24%, and 12% respectively. No respondents in the group of 11-20 years old were found.

The following table outlines how the participants from the UK and the US were distributed among the age groups:

Table 4. Age distribution in the modified questionnaire

As may be observed from the table, the number of the participants from the UK and the US in each group was rather similar. However, in the group of 51-60 years old there was a high number of Americans, whereas in the group of those over 60 years old the majority were from the UK. Overall, a diverse range of generations is observed which adds more objectivity to the results of the survey.

Occupation. The occupation was the second dimension included in the questionnaire and is worth noting. Although the question was made optional, the majority of the participants mentioned their job or professional sphere (80%). The Americans left the question unanswered more often than the Britons. A wide spectrum of occupations was present which makes the group of the respondents rather diverse. Among the British respondents there were such professional spheres as retail, animal care, top management, event management, engineering, etc. Some other jobs, namely lorry driver, church leader, builder, and mechanic, were also found. The American respondents mentioned such occupations as marketing manager, finance manager, screenwriter, student, programmer, etc. It must be pointed out that among the respondents from both countries there were some professors and teachers (both former and current). Their number constituted 13%. Retired people represented around 10%.

Statistics. In the table below it is displayed how the answers to the six contexts offered were distributed among the participants:

Table 5. The findings of the modified questionnaire

Primary findings. The questionnaire attempted to add more evidence to the main statements in terms of the PP.

The first hypothesis suggests that the general employment of the PP is gradually declining (Darragh, 2000; Elsness, 1997; Elsness, 2009). As could be seen from the table, 62% of the British participants opted for the PP in the given cases. We should take into account that despite the fact that the PP and the SP were possible to use in them, the original fragments comprised only the PP. Hence, the number of the Britons picking the PP was rather far from the vast majority. With regard to the Americans, less than half of them opted for the PP in the questionnaire (45%). Hence, we may conclude that the hypothesis concerning the decline of the PP was strongly supported.

The second premise contends that the decreasing trend in the use of the PP is more noticeable in AmE. Consequently, Americans tend to use the PP less frequently than Britons (Davydova, 2011; Murphy, 2012; Yao, 2014). Overall, the general premise was proven. Nevertheless, it should be acknowledged that the difference between the two varieties appeared to be rather minor and constituted 17%. It may be that the influence of AmE on other varieties has increased in recent years and thus BrE is becoming `americanised' more quickly. The ratio of AmE to BrE from this questionnaire tends to be close to that suggested by Algeo (2006) which is 4:3.

The findings appeared to be rather different from the outcomes of the trial questionnaire. First, the percentage of both Britons and Americans opting for the PP has become smaller (from 77% to 62% for Britons and from 57% to 45% for Americans). It should be added that the decrease in the popularity of the PP has been slight and comparable for both standards of English. The decreasing tendency in BrE appeared to be only 3% higher than that in AmE. Second, relevance to the moment of speech as a determinant of the PP seems to be losing its effects. In last year's questionnaire the participants chose the PP in the situations where relevance to the moment of speech was implied more frequently than in this year's study.

Analysis of the situations. In order to find out new tendencies in the PP use, it is important to consider the cases given to the respondents in more detail. We should note that in all of the situations offered to the participants the importance of the past action to the current moment is present. However, the answers vary substantially. For example, only 30% of the participants from the UK opted for the PP in the first situation, whereas 90% of them picked the PP in question 3. Thus, it may be assumed that such determinant of the PP as the relevance to the present moment can be of a different extent depending on the context.

Regarding the first extract from The Hobbit (Tolkien, 1991), there was not much variation between the Britons and the Americans and most of them preferred the SP. This example indicates an insignificant difference in terms of how the speakers of both varieties of English evaluated the situation. It should be added that the use of the PP in this extract may not be completely obvious from the perspective of grammar. The participants were to choose the reaction to the utterance which ends with the SP construction: “I will give you what you asked for”. Hence, the respondents may have been governed by the SP and thus continued viewing the moment of `asking for something' as related to the sphere of past. As it has been noted, a dialogue may start with the PP and have a shift to the SP, but it should be in agreement between interlocutors (Kaushanskaya, 2008; Thomson & Martinet, 1986). Moreover, the reverse switch from the SP to the PP is not mentioned in the grammar references. Contrastingly, the fact that the person has not asked for anything is of a significant relevance to the dialogue and thus the use of the PP is justifiable. Moreover, it might be so that the employment of the PP and the auxiliary to have in this example convey emotional emphasis.

The second situation brings some difference in the answers between those from the UK and the US. More than half of the Britons opted for the PP whereas the reverse was true for the respondents from the US. The extract retrieved from The Hobbit (Tolkien, 1991) represents a typical example of the employment of the PP with a view to demonstrating the link between the past event and the current moment with no time markers used. Hence, the data of this situation appeared to be rather similar to the average results of the questionnaire. The second case reinforces the main claims. First, the use of the PP Resultative is in decline in both standards of English. Second, Americans tend to employ the PP and the SP interchangeably. In this particular example less than half of the Americans selected the PP. It needs to be added that a similar situation was included in the initial questionnaire under number five (Trublovskaya, 2019). In comparison with last year's results, both British and American participants used the PP variant more frequently in this questionnaire.

With respect to context three, the difference in the answers of the Britons and Americans appeared to be appreciable. Almost all of the British participants picked the PP (90%), whereas a high number of the Americans opted for the PP (70%). This case is somewhat different from the previous example in which the variance between the groups of the participants was only light. Being retrieved from Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (Rowling, 2002), the case implies the relevance of the past occurrence to the current moment. This relevance is easily recognized in the text as the result of it is expressed: the person will not go to the party as they are locked up. However, most Americans neglected it and used the SP. We presume that the argument outlined by Yao (2014) might be applicable to this situation. The researcher attributed the tendency to use the SP to considering the PP superfluous since the relevance of the event from the past is already apparent to interlocutors. The fact that the context looks rather informal and colloquial supports this explanation. As can be seen, the British respondents might have been governed primarily by grammatical precision and thus employed the PP.

In situation four the agreement between the two groups of the participants is noticed. The majority of both Britons and Americans opted for the PP version (70% and 65% respectively). The extract was retrieved from the book Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (Rowling, 2002) and represents a dialogue between the students and their professor. The PP was included in the utterance of the professor and his speech might be attributed to the formal style of English (e.g. `to impress upon'). Hence, the reason why most respondents from each group selected the PP could have been the level of formality comprised in the dialogue. The idea of the PP associating with formal style was also proposed by some grammarians (Kaushanskaya, 2008; Yao, 2014). From the perspective of grammar rules, the reason for employing the PP is rather obvious. The importance of the past event is highlighted in the utterance of the professor who implies that what the students have done is significant and thus may have consequences in the future. Hence, the interlocutors cannot relate the event to the sphere of past and view it as disconnected from the current moment. Nevertheless, it must be added that several respondents from both countries still preferred the SP.

With regard to the fifth situation, the answers were similar between the participants of the two groups. Slightly more than half of the Britons picked the PP, whereas there was one person more among the Americans who preferred the PP as well. The survey showed rather unusual results in this case since as a rule fewer Americans than British people select the PP. The extract was taken from The Hound of the Baskervilles by A. C. Doyle (Doyle, 1902) and displays rather old-fashioned English of the twentieth century. The importance of the bygone situation to the present moment is not strongly emphasized in the utterance and thus might be unclear to the contemporary speaker of English. However, the utterance seems to be rather formal and therefore imply some precision with grammar. Thus, both the PP and the SP could be accepted.

In the sixth situation the results appeared to be rather close to those obtained in the second case. The majority of the British respondents opted for the PP tense (65%), whereas the reverse was correct for the Americans (65% chose the SP). Retrieved from The Hound of the Baskervilles (Doyle, 1902), the situation contains a dialogue with the question in which the PP was implied. We assume that the respondents evaluated the case differently depending on their country of origin. On the one hand, the context presented may imply a certain level of formality (e.g., might be', `would be') and resemble a conversation between two colleagues. Hence, the answer in formal English, which is the PP, could have been expected. It may be that the British respondents had these thoughts while picking the tense. On the other hand, the respondents from the USA could have understood that the very answer of Sara's colleague looks rather informal and it could be a joke and thus viewed it as in the SP tense. Moreover, the relevance of the event from the past (Sara's analysis of the newspaper) can be regarded as both related to the past and connected with the present which is contingent on the speaker's intention and judgment. Hence, this situation constitutes an example in which the answer to the question of which tense to choose may not be found easily. It demonstrates that in such cases the general hypothesis of Americans preferring the SP over the PP remains relevant (Greenbaum, 1996; Davydova, 2011).

Conclusion. Overall, several observations should be made concerning the questionnaire's results. First, the premise that the use of the PP is in decline was strongly supported. Second, the statement that the PP is used less frequently in AmE was also proven with the remark that the difference between BrE and AmE was rather slight. It should be added that the second statement cannot be applicable to any situation and only represents a general picture (e.g., similar results for both BrE and AmE were obtained in contexts 4 and 5; more Americans than Britons selected the PP in context 5). We suggest that the relevance of the past event tends to be insufficient reason for using the PP. On the contrary, the use of the PP is to be viewed situationally since all the cases comprised some relevance of the bygone situation but the answers varied significantly in each question. It might be proposed that the setting is evaluated differently by British and American people (context 6). Britons may acknowledge the relevance of the past event in the cases which Americans regard as separate from the present moment (context 3). Also, both Britons and Americans would respond with the SP in case their interlocutor uses this tense in their utterance (context 1). In some situations Americans may be governed by the level of formality while picking the tense (contexts 2 and 4).

Finally, the idea of a disagreement between the tenses used in English books and the tenses selected in speech was confirmed. The three books for the survey were of a different time period in the twentieth century. The strongest agreement was found with the most modern book which is Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets first published in 1998.

At this time we must admit that the future of the PP is still unknown. Nevertheless, as Wynne (2000) contends, two forms in language cannot have the same meaning. Moreover, AmE seems to occupy the predominant position in terms of English varieties and the effects of `Americanisation' are observable in different aspects of grammar (Kirkpatrick, 2015; Yao & Collins, 2013). Hence, it is likely that the gradual shift to the SP will continue to grow in BrE and emerge in other dialects of English as well.

3.2 Limitations and future research

The study has several limitations that are to be taken into account during the analysis of the results. The format that we had chosen for the questionnaire could have presented some difficulties as the participants were strangers and might have not been careful to read the tasks online and complete them deliberately. Among other restrictions due to the online format we may name a certain order of the cases and the response options. Moreover, the participants were invited to choose the tense they would be more likely to pick in a daily conversation, which implies that the results might not be applicable to written English. The fact that the respondents were chosen only via language applications may also be viewed as a limiting factor. Finally, the participants were not grouped according to their age, gender, and occupation.

Since in this thesis we have dealt with the PP in BrE and AmE in general terms, there remains ample room for future research in a similar domain. For instance, further research could be concerned with the possible causes of the distinctions in the usage of the PP in BrE and AmE since no study exists in this respect (section 1.3.4.). The arguments suggested by different scholars tend to be based on their assumptions and thus more evidence is paramount. With the aim to test phonological grounds as one of the possible reasons proposed, it is useful to investigate whether the employment of the SP tense is more frequent with those verbs that have the same forms of the preterite and the past participle. Furthermore, since native speakers of English might regard the auxiliary to have in its full form as superfluous, it is reasonable to include contractions of the auxiliary to have in the response options and test whether they will encourage participants to opt for the PP more often. Also, more attention should be paid to the adverbials of time and the extent of their influence on the speaker's inclination towards the PP and the SP. For example, in further research some time markers could be inserted in the extracts from the modified questionnaire with the objective to compare data afterwards. Finally, a different research design such as a structural interview with native speakers might be helpful to understand how they perceive the PP and what factors affects their choice between the SP and the PP.

Another potential area for future research is the difference concerning the PP usage between natives and learners of English. Additionally, other varieties of English are to be examined on the frequency of the use of the PP in them. Moreover, the question about how the PP should be taught and learnt remains open.

Conclusion

The PP tense in English grammar constitutes one of the substantial areas for research. It is hypothesized that the use of this tense is in decline and the tendency is more discernible in AmE rather than BrE. Most recent studies have been concerned with British and American corpora and investigated the PP and its counterpart SP diachronically. However, little is known on how native speakers from the UK and the US employ the PP in their speech. This paper has attempted to broaden the field of research in this regard and examine the use of the PP tense in both varieties of English for describing past events. A critical analysis of literature and a correlational study with the method of a questionnaire have been conducted. The study makes some theoretical and practical contributions that need to be outlined.

Regarding the theoretical contributions, the paper allows us to acquire a deeper understanding of the concepts of the PP and the SP. It determined that perfect as a grammatical category of the verb is usually viewed as either belonging to tense or aspect. However, viewing perfect within the category of phase helps to avoid overlaps. We concluded that perfect as a grammatical category seems to depend on the speaker's perception of the past action and thus is subjective. Hence, some controversy over the employment of the PP and the SP arises. The paper questioned the attempts to view the PP within grammar rules since considering the past situation to be either isolated from the moment of speech or connected with it is individually determined. Moreover, the study established that adverbials of time do not always serve as clear indicators of a particular tense.

In the English language the shift from the PP to the SP with the time markers implying the PP is common in AmE and in colloquial BrE. Nevertheless, the reverse trend that constitutes the use of the SP with the time markers of the PP is still regarded by many grammarians as an exception. It is possible, however, that such occurrences will become gradually accepted in Standard English. Since language is rather unstable and constantly influenced by the speakers of it, the boundaries between the SP and the PP might become indistinct in the future. Among possible causes of the decreasing popularity of the PP linguists propose psychological grounds, namely considering the PP superfluous in speech owing to the informational explosion, colloquailization processes, the principle of language economy, etc.

With regard to the questionnaire, the results reinforced the premises outlined by other grammarians. They also demonstrated that the use of the PP tense varies only slightly in BrE and AmE and the selection of either the PP or the SP is situationally driven. Despite the fact that in general Americans are inclined to use the SP more frequently than Britons, in some cases the tendency may be reverse or with no difference between the varieties. The findings of the survey highlight that there is a disagreement between the English employed in books and the English used by native speakers. Also, we suggest that the relevance of the situation from the past to the current moment might lose the status of a strong indicator of the PP as the extent of it is viewed subjectively in every situation. It is also suggested that sometimes the PP, namely, the auxiliary to have, may be used in an utterance as a stylistic device, e.g., to emphasize surprise. The results of the study indicate that Americans and Britons might have different manners of evaluating the situation and its connection with the current moment. It may be that Britons see the connection of the past event with the current moment in the situations which Americans perceive as isolated. It is also proposed that Americans tend to pay a significant attention to the level of formality when choosing the tense. In more informal contexts the Americans were more likely to pick the SP. In contrast, there was not much difference in the choices between the PP and the SP among the British respondents in this respect. It is expected that the impact of AmE on other varieties of English will continue to grow. Hence, the shift to the SP is likely to continue.

The findings of this paper will be of interest to grammarians, teachers, researchers, and learners who want to grasp the difference between the PP and the SP with the objective of speaking grammatically correct English. Since in this research paper we intended to extend the outlook on the PP tense in broad terms, the PP Resultative and its status should continue to be investigated in the future.

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Appendix

Table A. Original versions for the modified questionnaire

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