The use of computer games in english language teaching and learning (on the example of Dragon Age II)

The number of analytical questions for each unit may vary, but the average is estimated to be around 7-10 questions. The plan is to start with more specific questions heavily based on the plot of the game (e.g. about in-game events or actions of particular characters) and then slowly move on to a more general discussion of same or similar issues. It will allow students to get the handle of the task first and only then get a deeper insight into the root of the problem itself. A crucial remark here would be that, while some of the in-game issues could actually be encountered in the reality (e.g. relationship problems, political conflicts), it certainly does not stand true for all of them due to the fantasy nature of the game. In this case, an analogy should be carefully drawn in order to let students get a deeper insight in the problem and make the task itself more practically oriented.

The second task will be devoted to the dialog/polylog practice and will again consist of several questions for discussion. This time, the question will mostly revolve around both in-game issues and real life issues hinted at throughout the game process. The objective is to keep the questions controversial in order to evoke more heated discussion and more effectively contribute to the critical thinking skills development.

Finally, the third exercise will be aimed at monologue completion, and the task may be presented in the form of a question, a notion or phenomenon to elaborate on, or a quote to comment on. Each unit will contain three monologue tasks, and, in a similar fashion as was seen in the first unit, the tasks will vary from more specific and directly based on the plot of the game to more general ones.

As the process of learning itself is undeniably social in its nature (even more so when it comes to language learning) and, as all the other social activities, occurs in interaction with other people rather than individually (Barton & Hamilton, 1998), this handbook mostly relies on tasks suitable for pair and group discussion and implies language learning in small groups rather than completely autonomously. Therefore, taking into account the primary goal of this section, it would be more efficient for students to complete the tasks with teacher's guidance and with them being able to listen and later present proper feedback. Nevertheless, it is still possible for students to complete all the tasks from the speaking section of the unit on their own. In this case students will have to record themselves and later access their own performance based on particular criteria chosen by the teacher (e.g. “CEFR Qualitative aspects of spoken language use” criteria, including range, accuracy, fluency, interaction (not applicable to monological tasks) and coherence (Council of Europe, 2001). There are also opportunities for peer assessment. In this case, students will be required to exchange their recordings (or organise a video call conference/meeting in real life, if the circumstances allow this) and grade each other based on the same criteria. The proper use of criteria in language classroom is of utter importance in the majority of cases, but even more so here, when applied to peer feedback. When certain criteria are present, it is easier for students to acknowledge both the strengths and weaknesses typical for the performances demonstrated by their fellow students, and this, as a result, contributes to the long-run development of implicit awareness of all vital and inseparable aspects of a good wholesome performance (Yeh, Tseng & Chen, 2019). Moreover, it also prevents students from being too judgmental or careless when accessing their peers and does not let them to solely rely on their personal likes and dislikes or be affected by the relationships already formed in the group. Nevertheless, these very relashionships and the similar background shared by people of the same age or in the same position may also become an added benefit, as students are more likely to understand the feedback delivered by their peers (Zhao, 2010). Finally, presenting feedback itself is an enriching experience which can lead students to become more aware of their own performance. Even when the teacher has the opportunity to listen to students and assess them himself or herself, introducing peer feedback might remain an intresting and valid opportunity due to the factors listed above.

The speaking section of the sample handbook unit is devoted to the phenomenon of migration, both in the game and in real life. The first task consists of various questions, including questions regarding the game (aimed at recollecting the information from the prologue and the reading and listening tasks) and real life. The questions lead to the group discussion of various issues connected to the process of migration in real life, and urges students to brainstorm together and employ their critical thinking skills. The third task implies the recollection of everything mentioned during the previous discussion, organized in a form of monologue with a clear structure. The list of smaller topics to mention in the scope of the main topic is also presented in order to guide students and ensure easier task completion.

Writing tasks

The section of handbook unit devoted to writing will basically consist of one task requiring students to complete a piece of writing on a particular topic and of particular format. Each unit should include different type of writing tasks, and they, if the teacher desires so, may coincide not only with the types of writing tasks recommended for students' level of English, but also with the types of tasks occurring in a particular exam the group is preparing for. For instance, if the objective of the course is to prepare students for the C1 Advanced exam, then the types of writing tasks in the handbook should include a letter or an email, a proposal, a report, and a review. As students tend to demonstrate better results when encountering a topic they are familiar with or, ideally, take an interest in (Nami, Enayati & Ashouri, 2012), before entering the writing section of the unit the student should have already at least touched upon a subject the topic of the writing task is focused on.

What also should be mentioned in regard to writing tasks is that a student must have a handle of all grammar and vocabulary constructions required to complete this very type of tasks. The lack of a solid foundation of this knowledge often becomes one of the biggest challenges for a non-native English speaker (DelliCarpini, 2012). Therefore, a teacher has to make sure that all of the constructions required have been mentioned in the scope of a unit. It would be also instrumental to provide a small vocabulary bank or a compilation of sentence starters to ease difficulties for students who tend to be hesitant in their writing.

In the writing section of a sample handbook unit, a student is asked to complete a proposal on different measures the government may take in regard to the process of migration. As the topic of the writing task coincides with the topic of speaking tasks, it is expected that the student is already familiar with the problem and takes a particular amount of interest in it. Moreover, the vocabulary and grammar constructions they are to utilize in their writing have also been covered beforehand in the previous sections of the unit, meaning that now the chances of encountering difficulties is as low as possible. Finally, the task itself contains the detailed structure of a proposal letter, and below the tasks students can find a table with various sentence starters applicable for this type of tasks. All of these measures ensure smoother and more deliberate task completion process and are expected to prove themselves instrumental and provide ample and adequate supporting material.



Use of English tasks

Grammar tasks

While the game does present an ample number of various grammar constructions, it is generally not done on purpose due to the non-educational nature of the game. On the one hand, this ensured better comprehension and memorization due to the structures first being encountered in a meaningful and relevant context (Zuidema, 2012). On the other hand, this means that the majority of the constructions will most likely not be repeated (at least in the one relatively short stretch of speech) and that they are typically hard to spot, especially if the person playing the game does not have a clear intention to do so. Therefore, the first thing to be said in regards to the construction of grammar tasks is that all the stretches of speech where one or another expression appears should be highlighted in the handbook. It might also be a good idea to give students a chance to notice the pattern and guess the rules of formation and proper meaning of the construction themselves, as they have most likely not had a chance to do so before, during the natural process of gaming, unless they have been paying special attention to the wording rather than the meaning. Noticing the pattern might be of use here because it adds up to better comprehension and memorization of a particular grammar construction. Students are more likely to remember something they have discovered themselves, and the teacher must encourage them in their desire to autonomously find the right answer and point out the correct word order and the overall pattern of each grammar construction (Kohler, 2015).

After that, the proper set of rules should be introduced in order to eliminate any misunderstanding. A few examples should also be given, as they tend to be even more instrumental in acquiring the handle of new grammar constructions. Each new rule or a particular aspect of grammar topic should also be accompanied by a separate example, and they must be as clear as possible. Finally, after the explanation is given students must be also presented with two or three tasks (depending on the difficulty of the construction) in order for students to have the opportunity to drill the new construction. This may include such tasks as error correction, completing sentences, putting verbs in the correct active of passive tense, etc. It would be more efficient for the learning process if all the exercises presented in the unit are of different types.

The grammar section of the sample handbook unit is devoted to the modal verbs of confidence. The sentences with these verbs are encountered in both listening and reading handbook section, and the last task of the listening section already touches upon this topic, encouraging students to find words used as the indicators of a particular confidence level. While not of them are modal verbs, they still do fulfill the same function as modal verbs do and could later help in determining the verb which would be appropriate in each situation.

Now, in the grammar section, all the sentences with modal verbs are put together for students to look at them again and compare, trying to establish the pattern repeating in the sentences and rank the highlighted verbs from expressing the most to the least confidence. They can later compare their results to the grammar reference presented below. This reference also contains other grammar rules related to the usage of modal verbs of confidence, and view examples for each rule. There are at least two examples for each regulation in order to make the rules more clear and decrease the chance of misunderstandings. After that, a student is asked to complete two grammar exercises on the covered topic. It is ensured that all the rules are represented in the sentences from the tasks, so as to gradually acquire all of them.

Vocabulary tasks

The game depicts a wide range of different vocabulary units covering various areas of life and belonging to different topics and parts of speech. In order to ensure better memorization and provide the learning material in a more structured and comprehensive way, it would be best to choose on one or two vocabulary learning strategies and employ them consistently, without switching from one strategy to another (Yang & Wu, 2015). This way, it would enhance the overall learning process and lead to enhanced internalization of vocabulary covered in each unit (Nation, 2001). Based on the content of the game it was decided to concentrate on grouping categories, that is, on organizing all vocabulary items encountered in accordance with their respectful characteristics, such as, in case of this handbook, the topic and the part of speech they belong to. In order to establish better connection to the previous units (namely, listening and reading sections) the first exercise will always be devoted to words on particular topic. Typically, the topic would coinside with the topic of the texts from reading and listening sections, or, if not, at least be in a relatively close correlation with it. The second task will contain words belonging to one part of speech (nouns, verbs, adverbs, etc.) or group of expressions (such as idioms). Finally, the third exercise will most likely contain all the other significant words and expressions which should be memorized but do not fit into any of the categories. Although ideally all the exercises should be connected by the same topic, one should remember that all of these units are devoted to relatively short stretches of game content, which was not specifically adapted for educational purposes, and all homogeneous words and expressions are very likely to be encountered together. Yet all the meaningful words and expressions should be properly drilled and cannot be simply dismissed due to any of these factors. Therefore, combining them all in one exercise seems like the most fair solution. All exercises should ideally belong to different types (e.g. gap completion, word transformation, word building, matching synonyms, etc.).

The reading section of the sample unit consists of three exercises. Just as suggested above, the first exercise contains words belonging to the topic of geography, the same topic as in the reading section. The second exercise contains all the meaningful verbs from the prologue, and, finally, the third exercise consists of other words worth drilling. Although the first and the second exercise are relatively similar in their type (both include filling gaps with correct words out of the suggested list), each has an added difficulty not reflected in the other one (in the first exercise there are extra words; in the second verbs also need to be put in a correct active or passive tense), making this similarity justified.

Chapter 3. Results and discussion

As briefly described in the Methods section, the experiment consists of four stages. During the first stage all the participants present the general information about themselves, including their age and estimated level of English knowledge. Next, they complete a pre-test consisting of 10 multiple choice questions. The questions include the information covered in the reading, listening, and use of English sections of the handbook. After that the students are asked to access their level of confidence about some specific language skills which will be later enhanced during task completion. These skills include writing a proposal, working with texts on the topic of geography, using modal verbs of confidence, and presenting a monologue or participating in a pair/group discussion on the topic of migration. Finally, students are also asked to rate (from 1 to 5) their level of confidence regarding their general development of all four main language skills: listening, reading, speaking, and writing.

During the second stage students complete the exercises from all sections of the handbook unit. This includes listening, reading, speaking, writing, and use of English (grammar and vocabulary) tasks. The approximate time it should take take to complete the whole unit is about 3 to 4 hours. After that the students are provided with answers for all of the tasks and are free to check themselves for any mistakes. If they need to obtain a better understanding of a particular aspect they do not fully comprehend yet, they receive a more detailed and personalized explanation.

Next, during the third stage of the experiment students write a post-test consisting of the same 10 multiple choice questions, this time with the additional knowledge obtained from the unit. Once again, they are asked to assess their level of confidence regarding their ability to complete all the types of activities mentioned above, as well as regarding their overall development of all language skills.

Finally, during the last stage students are to provide feedback about the experiment. They have to reflect on the content, structure, and difficulty level of the tasks, as well as on changes in their level of confidence regarding particular types of tasks.

The results obtained through the experiment clearly indicate the improvement in the performance demonstrated during the pre- and post-test stage, as well as firm increase in students' level of confidence regarding the development of both general and more specific language skills.

First of all, the overall success at completing the multiple choice test has increased by 25%, with the rate of correct answers given during the pre-test stage being 67% and the rate of correct answers given during the post-test stage being 92%. The most drastic difference was registered between the prior and posterior answers given on lexical questions (especially questions 1 and 7), while the answers on grammar questions (questions 9 and 10) have almost not been affected, with the percentage of correct answers given during the pre-test stage already being rather high (90%).

There were also noticeable changes in the level of confidence students expressed in regard to the development of their general and specific language skills. During the pre-test stage the majority of students felt insecure about completing most of particular tasks listed in the test, with writing a proposal and working with texts on the topic of geography being the most perplexing and intimidating tasks for students. By the post-test stage, the level of confidence regarding all of these skills has increased drastically, with no “not confident at all” answers being chosen for any of the question and the rates of “a little confident” answers never exceeding 10%.

The level of confidence regarding the overall development of four main language skills has also increased. The most noticeable change was registered in the speaking skills section, where the level of confidence has increased by 16% (from the initial 66% to 82%). Although in general the changes were rather subtle, it was expected, as completing just one unit of the handbook is not enough to bring drastic changes to the overall picture.

The results of the speaking and writing part completion also indicate the successful acquisition of new vocabulary and grammar material, as well as the appropriate discourse structure. In the answers given by students during the speaking (See Appendix C and Appendix D) and writing (See Appendix E) stages we can clearly point out students' attempts to utilize new lexical items (e.g. to efface (financial problems), to flee (the country), to be highly regarded (in another country), steppes). Even though the use of these items seemed unnatural at times in the respectful context, which indicates conscious competence rather than unconscious, this still implies that new vocabulary has been absorbed and is now being put in active use. The same can be said about grammar constructions, namely, constructions including modal verbs of confidence (e.g. “migrants who must have suffered some traumatic events”, “military conflicts might be a more important factor”, which are also being used frequently and even more gracefully and with higher awareness of the context throughout all three example answers. However, while both the monologue and the dialog seem coherent and contain linking devices, it can also be pointed out that students tend to concentrate on one or two linking phrases and expressions (e.g. “I agree with you here”, frequently repeated during the dialog) and overuse them as a result. Therefore, it would be a good idea to include sections with various linking words and expressions in the speaking section too, similarly as in the writing section, where they were employed successfully, in order to encourage students to use them and diversify their vocabulary.

Finally, the freeform feedback submitted by students at the end of the post-test is also overwhelmingly positive. All of the participants described the content as entertaining (“It was intresting”, “The tasks were pretty engaging”) and rich (“...covers many topics”, “...rich, with ample material provided”). Some also pointed out its relevance (“The topic is very up to date”) and appreciated the idea of building a connection between in-game and real life problems (“The idea of coming from a game prologue to the discussion of migration is amazing, really. I didn't expect it at all”, “I find it very appropriate to present vocabulary on the subject of migration through fiction since it delivers the information without approcahing real world's controversy”). The structure of unit was also assessed as smooth and well-organized (“Very coherent and cool”, “It's very logical and clear, tasks go smoothly”, “The unit is well-structured”), with solid combination of tasks on the development of four main language skills (“It is well structed and helps to learn all parts of language: listening, reading, vocabulary, speaking, grammar”). Next, the difficulty level of tasks was assessed either as optimal (“It's optimal. Not too difficult or too easy”, “medium”) or difficult, but evoking interest rather than confusion (“It was difficult, but intresting”, “They were rather challenging, but interesting, especially those on vocabulary and speaking”). One of the participant also pointed out the gradation of tasks from more easy to more difficult (“the topics are arranged from less to more thought-provoking, which totally makes sense”). Finally, regarding the changes in the level of confidence, all of the students stated that the tasks from the handbook unit helped them to either refresh (“The general level of confidence was not affected much, but I was helped to revise some topics”, “It's great, I progressed from being generally but not completely confident to being completely confident in completing all types of tasks”) or significantly enrich their knowledge (“Confidence levels grew significantly”). Students pointed out the changes in their level of confidence regarding both more specific (“The tasks have definitely helped me to acquire new lexicon specific to the topics of migration and geography, as well as refreshed my knowledge and boosted my confidence about the use of modal verbs”, “I became more confident in modal verbs”) and general language skills, with all of four main language skills being named at least once. Among all of the skills developed, the students most frequently named reading comprehension and handle of vocabulary constructions.

All in all, both the results of the pre- and post-testing and freeform feedback submitted by students themselves indicate the effectiveness of the handbook and tasks compiled in it in terms of their contribution to the process of second language learning. All characteristics of the handbook (its structure, content, and difficulty level) were assessed positively by all of the participants. The enhancement of the handle of all specific and more general language skills can also be tracked both in the differences between correct answer rates received for pre/post-tests and in students' feedback.

Moreover, there were no noticeable differences in the overall performance, final results, and improvement rates demonstrated by students with different levels of English (B2 and C1). This might imply that the handbook in question is suitable for users with the handle of any of these two levels of English knowledge; however, in order to establish this, a more profound research with a wider sample and range of participants is required.



Conclusion

At present, games as a phenomenon still remain one of the most successful and effective instruments for organizing the process of second language learning. With the ongoing rapid technological development and growing popularity of video games, it is only a matter of time before the use of video games in education becomes more wide-spread and socially accepted. This refers not only to educational computer games, which are already acknowledged in most institutions, but also to non-educational computer games, which have served the main subject of the present research.

The current study examined the use of non-educational video games in the scope of second language learning and presented an overview on the appropriate scholarly literature devoted to the area of second language learning via gaming. The research followed the development of games as a whole into a range of more narrow concepts, including the concept of non-educational video games, and elaborated on peculiarities, specific characteristics, and benefits typical for each smaller subtype of this broad category. Consequently, non-educational video games were discussed in more detail, and their linguistic and extra-linguistic benefits were carefully described. Next, previous studies in the field of non-educational computer games were reflected on, and their limitations were highlighted, leading to the main part of the present senior thesis. During the second stage of the research, a sample unit of an English handbook was designed, following the criteria of multiple scientific articles and activity design manuals, all referenced in the respectful chapter. Main principles for task designing were also outlined, followed by the description of their usage on the example of particular sections of a unit in question.

The results obtained through the experiment stage of this study demonstrated the effectiveness of the handbook unit in terms of its contribution to the development of four main language skills, as well as more specific language-related abilities. This indicates that, despite popular claims, non-educational video games have full potential to serve ample learning material and should, therefore, be examined in more detail and with appropriate attention.

In the future, the sample handbook unit designed in the scope of this research can be modified, extended, and developed into a complete piece of work, covering the whole plot of the game and including all language-relevant material. This handbook, meeting the criteria of multiple activity design manuals, can later be used in various language classrooms and learning environments. Based on the results obtained during the experiment, there are all the reasons to expect that it will significantly enhance the development of not only specific but also general language skills, thus drastically improving students' overall performance and handle of second language.

Additionally, the present research hopes to serve a valuable contribution to the ongoing studies in the area of second language learning via video games, both autonomously and in small groups. The theoretical component of this paper can be of use for future researches dedicated to video games of various types, including both single-player and multiplayer games and educational and non-educational games of various genres.

Finally, the concept of supplementary handbook described above may also be applied to a wide range of modern computer games, and the principles of task designing outlined here can be modified and enhanced in numerous ways in order to better suit the goals of teachers and students from any learning environment.

References

1. Akopyan, E. & Tukmakova, Y. (2019) The Role of Computer Games in Developing Learning Autonomy. National Research University Higher School of Economics: Department of Foreign Languages. 

2. Alemi, M. & Ebadi, S. (2010). The Effects of Pre-reading Activities on ESP Reading Comprehension. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 1(5), 569-577. 

3. Altura, G.J. & Curwood, J.S. (2015). Hitting restart: Learning and gaming in an Australian classroom. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 59(1), 25-27.

4. Anyzova, P. & Ћdнmalovб, H. (2012). Pre-listening Stage and Teaching Listening from the Adult Learner's Perspective. Proceedings of the 8th International & 12th National Conference of the Association of Teachers of English of the Czech Republic, 23-38

5. Azizifar, A., Roshani, S., Gowhary, H., Jamalinesari, A. (2015). The Effect of Pre-reading Activities on the Reading Comprehension Performance of Ilami High School Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 192, 188-194.

6. Barton, D. & Hamilton, M. (1998). Local literacies: Reading and writing in one community. London and New York: Routledge.

7. Beavis, C. (2014). Games as Text, Games as Action: Video Games in The English Classroom. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(6), 433-439

8. Bioware. (2011). Dragon Age II [Video game]. Redwood City: Electronic Arts.

9. Buelow, M.T., Okdie, B.M., Cooper, A.B. (2015). The influence of video games on executive functions in college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 228-234

10. Chandra, S., Sharma, G., Abdul Salam, A., Jha, D., Prakash Mittal, A. (2016) Playing Action Video Games a Key to Cognitive Enhancement. Procedia Computer Science, 84, 115 - 122 

11. Compton-Lilly, C. (2007). What Can Video Games Teach Us about Teaching Reading? The Reading Teacher, 60(8), 718-727. 

12. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, U.K: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

13. Cross, E. (1915). The Functional Teaching of English Grammar. The English Journal, 4(10), 653-659.

14. Daesang Kim, & David A. Gilman. (2008). Effects of Text, Audio, and Graphic Aids in Multimedia Instruction for Vocabulary Learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(3), 114-126.

15. DelliCarpini, M. (2012). Success with ELLs: We Are All Writers! Building Second Language Writing Skills in the ELA Classroom. The English Journal, 101(5), 97-101.

16. Gaudart, H. (1999). Games as Teaching Tools for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Simulation & Gaming, 30(3), 283-291

17. Gee, J.P. (2007) What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. New York, NY: St. Martins Press.

18. Grace, L. (2005). Game Type and Game Genre.

19. Green, C.S., Bavelier, D. (2007). Action-Video-Game Experience Alters the Spatial Resolution of Vision. Psychological Science, 18(1), 88-94

20. Huyen, N.T.T. & Thu Nga, K.T. (2003). Learning Vocabulary through Games - The Effectiveness of Learning Vocabulary Through Games. The Asian EFL Journal, 5(4). 

21. Jan, M. & Gaydos, M. (2016). What Is Game-Based Learning? Past, Present, and Future. Educational Technology, 56(3), 6-11. 

22. Jenkins, J., Stein, M., & Wysocki, K. (1984). Learning Vocabulary Through Reading. American Educational Research Journal, 21(4), 767-787.

23. Johnson, S. (2005). Everything Bad Is Good for You. New York, NY: Riverhead Books.

24. Kafai, Y.B., Quintero, M., Feldon, D. (2010) Investigating the "why" in Whypox: causal and systematic explorations in a virtual epidemic. Games Cult, 5(1), 116-135. 

25. Kokkalia, G., Drigas, A., Economou, A. (2016). The Role of Games in Special Preschool Education. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 11(12), 30-35

26. Kohler, M. (2015). Teachers as Mediators in the Foreign Language Classroom. Bristol: Multilingual Matters

27. Macedonia, M. (2005). Games and foreign language teaching. Support for Learning, 20(3), 135-140.

28. MacKenzie, A.H. (2005). The Brain, the Biology Classroom & Kids with Video Games. The American Biology Teacher, 67(9), 517-518. 

29. Marino, M., Israel, M., Beecher, C., Basham, J. (2013). Students' and Teachers' Perceptions of Using Video Games to Enhance Science Instruction. Journal of Science, Education and Technology, 22(5), 667-680. 

30. Molavi, S. & Kuhi, D. (2018). A Comparative Study of the Effects of Three Different Pre-Listening Tasks at Intermediate and Advanced Levels. Journal of Advances in English Language Teaching, 6(1), 1-16. 

31. Nami, Y., Enayati, T., Ashouri, M. (2012) The Relationship Between Self-Regulation Approaches and Learning Approaches in English Writing Tasks on English Foreign Language Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 614-618. 

32. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

33. Newton, J.M., Ferris, D.R., Goh, C.C.M., Grabe, W., Stoller, F.L., Vandergrift, L. (2018). Teaching English to Second Language Learners in Academic Contexts: Reading, Writing, Listening, and Speaking. New York, NY: Routledge. 

34. Nunan, S. (2005). Forgiving Ourselves and Forging Ahead: Teaching Grammar in a New Millennium. The English Journal, 94(4), 70-75.

35. Prensky, M. (2006). Don't Bother Me Mom--I'm Learning! New York, NY: Paragon House.

36. Rose, D. (2018). Evaluating the Task of Language Learning. In Miller B., McCardle P., & Connelly V. (Eds.), Writing Development in Struggling Learners: Understanding the Needs of Writers across the Lifecourse (pp. 161-181). Leiden; Boston: Brill. 

37. Richards, J.C. (2006) Communicative language teaching Today. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 

38. Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2011). A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change. Lexington, KY: CreateSpace.

39. Tukmakova, Y. (2020). Project Proposal: The Use of Computer Games in English Language Teaching and Learning: the Case of Dragon Age II. National Research University Higher School of Economics: Department of Foreign Languages.

40. Uriarte, A.B. (2013). Vocabulary Teaching: Focused Tasks for Enhancing Acquisition in EFL Contexts. Mextesol Journal, 37(2), 1-12. 

41. Vдisдnen, A.-P. (2018). Learning English through Video Games: Finnish Learners' Experiences. University of Jyvдskylд: Department of Language and Communication Studies.

42. Wilson, K.A., Bedwell, W.L., Lazzara, E.H., Salas, E., Burke, C.S., Estock, J.L., Orvis, K.L., Conkey, C. (2009). Relationships Between Game Attributes and Learning Outcomes: Review and Research Proposals. Simulation & Gaming, 40(2), 217-266. 

43. Yang, F.O. & Wu, W.V. (2015). Using Mixed-Modality Learning Strategies via e-Learning for Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(3), 309-322.

44. Yeh, H., Tseng, S., & Chen, Y. (2019). Using Online Peer Feedback through Blogs to Promote Speaking Performance. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 22(1), 1-14.

45. Zhao, H. (2010) Investigating learners' use and understanding of peer and teacher feed- back on writing: A comparative study in a Chinese English writing classroom. Assessing Writing, 15, 3-17.

46. Zuidema, L. (2012). The Grammar Workshop: Systematic Language Study in Reading and Writing Contexts. The English Journal, 101(5), 63-71. 



Appendix

Appendix A

Self-designed handbook unit (including answers and listening tasks transcript)

Unit 1. Prologue. Escaping Lothering.

Brief summary of the prologue:

The framing narration begins with Cassandra, the Seeker of the Chantry, trying to restore the story of Hawke, the protagonist of the game. She is interrogating Varric, Hawke's old-time companion, who reluctantly agrees to tell Hawke's story from the beginning. The story proper (presented in Varric's narration) starts with Hawke's family trying to escape Lothering, their home village, which is now attacked by groups of monsters called darkspawn. Hawke and his family decide to flee to Kirkwall, the city Hawke's mother comes from, hoping they will be able to settle there with their uncle Gamlen. On their way from Lothering they meet a knight, Aveline, and her husband, who are also fighting darkspawn. During one of the following battles Hawke's sibling and Aveline's husband die, and the protagonists are surrounded by darkspawn. Suddenly the darkspawn are scared off by a dragon, who later shapeshifts into Flemeth, the legendary witch. She asks for Hawke's help in delivering an amulet and in return offers to bring them to the nearest port. Hawke accepts the deal.

Listening

1. Reflect on the material from the prologue and answer the following questions:

1. What means of transport do you know? Which of them, based on what you have seen in the prologue, might exist in the setting of the game? Which new, imaginary means of transport which could only exist in this game can you come up with?

2. What problems do people usually face when fleeing to another city or country? What problems might the protagonists face?

2. You are now going to watch the cutscene about the protagonists' journey to Kirkwall. Listen carefully and choose the correct answer A, B, C, or D for questions (1-5).

1. How does Cassandra feel about Varric's story?

a) She is dubious, but willing to listen. *

b) She refuses to believe him and accuses him of lying.

c) She is not surprised at what she hears.

d) She admits it's true and agrees to trust Varric from now on.

2. What is mentioned about the protagonists' journey to Kirkwall?

a) The journey was peaceful, but exhausting.

b) The weather conditions were unfortunate. *

c) Hawk and his team were desperate and scared.

d) The dragon flew them north across the Waking sea.

3. What does Varric say about Kirkwall?

a) Kirkwall is now a completely free city.

b) Slavery is legal and widespread in Kirkwall.

c) The situation regarding slavery in Kirkwall is controversial. *

d) Kirkwall is the part of the Imperium.

4. What is the situation in the Gallows when the protagonists arrive?

a) The guards are only letting some people in the city.

b) Hawk and his family are the only ones fleeing the blight.

c) The guards are throwing the refugees to the wolves.

d) The entrance to Kirkwall is restricted. *

5. How does Hawke feel about their chances of getting into the city?

a) He is absolutely convinced they will find the solution. *

b) He hopes they will be able to resolve the conflict.

c) He is not sure about the outcome of the situation.

d) He is mostly confident, but has his doubts.

3. Listen to the dialogue sections of the extract again and point out:

- which of the characters do the following;

- what constructions or modal verbs they use to convey their feelings.

a) Express confidence (Hawke: “We are getting into the city, one way or another”; Hawke's mother: “He can do something, I'm sure of it”);

b) Make a guess regarding someone else's reaction (Varric: “I thought this might interest you”).

c) Express disbelief (Cassandra: “You expect me to believe...”; Hawke's mother: “That can't be!”);

d) Give a vague answer. (Varric: “In a matter of speaking”)

e) Express lack of surprise (Carver: “Are we really surprised?”).



Reading

1. Reflect on the material from the prologue and answer the following questions:

1. Based on the first part of the prologue, what can you tell about the world Hawke lives in? What geographical places were mentioned?

2. What can be said about Kirkwall, the city Hawke and his team are heading to?

2. You are going to read two extracts from the Codex. Five sentences have been removed from the extracts. Choose from the sentences A-G the one which fits each gap (1-5). There are two extra sentences you do not need to use.

Geography of Thedas

Thedas is bounded to the east by the Amaranthine Ocean, to the west by Tirashan Forest and the Hunterhorn Mountains, to the south by the snowy wastes that lie beyond the Orkney Mountains, and to the north by Donark Forest. The word "Thedas" is Tevinter in origin, originally used to refer to lands that bordered the Imperium. .... (1) - E

The northern part of Thedas is divided amongst the Anderfels, the Tevinter Imperium, Antiva, and Rivain, with the islands held by the Qunari just off the coast. Central Thedas consists of the Free Marches, Nevarra, and Orlais, with Ferelden to the south.

What lies beyond the snowy wastes is a mystery. ...... (2) - A. Similarly, the western reaches of the Anderfels have never been fully explored, even by the Anders themselves. We do not know if the dry steppes are shadowed by mountains, or if they extend all the way to a nameless sea.

There must be other lands, continents or islands, perhaps across the Amaranthine or north of Par Vollen, for the Qunari arrived in Thedas from somewhere, but beyond that deduction, we know nothing.

The City of Kirkwall

Kirkwall once lived on the edge of the Tevinter Imperium and was home to nearly a million slaves. ....... (3) - B They worked in massive quarries and sweltering foundries that produced stone and steel for the Empire.

The city's complicated past is not easy to forget, history having earmarked many corners of the stone city. A ship approaching the harbor spots the city's namesake: an imposing black wall. ........ (4) - F Over the years, the Chantry has effaced many of these profane sentinels, but it will take many more years to erase them all.

Also carved into the cliff is a channel that permits ships into the city's interior. Flanking the channel are two massive bronze statues-the Twins of Kirkwall. The statues have a practical use. .......... (5) - C This stranglehold on sea traffic is jealously guarded by the ever-changing rulers of the city as the net trolls taxes, tolls, and extortions in from the sea.

A. The freezing temperatures and barren land have kept even the most intrepid cartographers at bay.

B. Stolen from elven lands or shipped from across the sea, all slaves fed the Imperium's unquenchable thirst for expansion.

C. Kirkwall sits next to the narrowest point of the Waking Sea, and a massive chain net can be erected between the statues and the lighthouse, closing off the only narrow navigable lane.

D. Ancient Tevinter lore is hard to come by, but there's history to be had here in Kirkwall, the city once home to the Imperium's slave trade.

E. As the Imperium lost its stranglehold on conquered nations, more and more lands became Thedas, until finally people applied the name to the entire continent.

F. It is visible for miles, and carved into the cliff side are a pantheon of vile guardians representing the Old Gods.

G. They are works of art, with centuries of planning demonstrated in the geometry of their walls.

3. Skim the text again and mark the sentences (1-6) as true (T) or false (F).

1. ”Thedas” was the name Tevinter Imperium gave to its conquered lands. (F)

2. The continent of Thedas has yet to be thoroughly explored. (T)

3. The majority of slaves were brought in Kirkwall for domestic labour (F).

4. The figures of Old Gods carved into the cliff have fainted naturally, without any human intervention. (F)

5. The famous black cliff incorporates both practical and aesthetical features. (T)

6. The landscape of Kirkwall made it impossible to obtain control over sea traffic. (F)

Use of English

Grammar. Modal Verbs of Certainty.

Look at the modal verbs used in the sentences below. What degree of confidence do they convey? What other parts of sentences help to indicate this degree of confidence?

Varric: “I thought that part might interest you.”

There must be other lands, continents or islands, ...., for the Qunari arrived in Thedas from somewhere, but beyond that deduction, we know nothing.

Hawke decides to make a deal with Flemeth, although he knows she could be lying.

Try to range the modal verbs from expressing the most to the least certainty, then check the grammar reference below to see if you were correct.

Grammar reference

Modal verbs must, can/could, may and might are used in sentences in order to express possibility. They all differ in the degree of certainty they convey, with must expressing the highest degree of certainty, can/could expressing medium degree of certainty, and may/might expressing the lowest degree of certainty and being the most tentative.

It must be true. (Everything shows that this is true)

It can/could happen soon. (It is possible that it happens soon)

He might agree to help is. (There is a chance, but he might also be busy).

We use the construction might/could/must + have + past participle in order to make guesses about the past.

I must have lost your book. (I can't find it anywhere)

He might have finished already. (There is a chance, but he might also still be working)

We use can't/ couldn't when talking about impossible/very unlikely situations.

You can't still be hungry. (You have just had dinner)

It couldn't have been him who ate the whole cake. (He doesn't like sweets).

1. Fill the gaps with might/could/must/can't.

1. She is his best friend and he tells her everything, so she .... (must) know what happened.

2. I think I ..... (might) end up doing it, but I'm still weighing the pros and cons.

3. It ...... (could/might) be just a warning, but it ...... (could/might) also be a threat

4. There is no way he ....... (could) have predicted something like that. It ..... (must) be a coincidence.

5. He ......... (can't) have left his daughter. He loves her a lot.

6. It's just a hunch, but I feel like this ...... (might) not be the best idea.

7. It is not like her to be so late. Something ..... (must) have happened.

2. Rewrite the following sentences using the appropriate modal verbs of certainty.

1. I'm sure that she has hidden the evidence. (She must have hidden the evidence)

2. There is a chance he knows something, but I wouldn't get my hopes up. (He might know something, but I wouldn't get my hopes up).

3. It is pretty evident that someone stole the bag. (Someone must have stolen the bag)

4. There is a good chance that it will happen sooner than we expect. (It can/could happen sooner than we expect).

5. There is no way it was him who started the fight. He had always been a timid child. (He couldn't have started the fight).



Vocabulary

1. Below you can see the list of words belonging to the sphere of geography. Fill the gaps with suitable words. There are two extra words which you do not need to use.

to lie beyond quarries lanes to border west to extend steppes to be bounded east

1. The eastern coast ........... by a mountain chain with rocky cliffs and high peaks. (is bounded)

2. The materials extracted from ...... were typically used for construction purposes. (quarries)

3. The majority of ....... are covered by dry and thorny shrubs, and there are hardly any trees to find. (steppes)

4. When I was a child, I often dreamt about the foreign lands that ....... the ocean. (lie beyond)

5. These lands ..... across diverse terrain and are rich in resources and development potential. (extend)

6. These ..... are too narrow for any carriage to enter. (lanes)

7. Far away to the ...., where the sun rises, lie wide fields and crystal clear lakes. (east)

2. Match the words in bold to their synonyms from the text: sentinel, sweltering, imposing, barren, intrepid, unquenchable, stranglehold.

1. He was not tall or physically strong, but somehow still managed to hold a strangely impressive presence.

2. The room was empty, with hardly any furniture of decoration.

3. Her thirst for knowledge was endless.

4. Only the most fearless adventurers dared to visit that place.

5. According to a legend, this spirit was the dedicated guardian of the village.

6. The air conditioning was broken, and the room was unbearably stuffy.

7. He tried to loose the grip at his neck, but quickly realized it was not helping.

3. Fill the gaps with verbs from the prologue, putting them into the correct active or passive tense forms.

to recite to efface to lurch to highly regard to flee

1. If my grandfather ...... the country before the war, he would not have been injured. (had fled)

2. He ........ always ...... in the city, but everything changed after his betrayal. (had been highly regarded)

3. The other students kept chatting even while I ..... the poem, but the teacher said nothing. (was reciting)

4. Any mention of him .... from history books, and, with time, he was forgotten. (was/had been effaced)

5. Suddenly the car ..... abruptly, and my head hit the windshield. (lurched)



Speaking

1. Reflect on the prologue and answer the following questions:

1. What situation do the protagonists find themselves in at the beginning of the game?

2. Why are they so desperate to escape Lothering? What may happen if they don't leave?

3. What place are the protagonists heading to? Why?

4. What reasons can make people flee their hometown or country in our world?

5. What factors should people consider when choosing the city or country to move to? What environment would they be looking for?

6. What factors can make the process of migration easier or more complicated?

7. How can governments and charity organizations help people in such situations?

2. Below you can see a list of factors which might urge people to migrate from their country to another. Work in pairs or in small groups and discuss the following:

· Which of these factors are the most and the least crucial and requiring urgent action?

· What country might people choose to move to in each of these cases?

· How can migration change the future lives of people in these situations?

- military conflicts;

- poor educational system;

- family separation;

- weak economy and unemployment;

- poor environmental conditions.

3. Reflect on the previous discussion and prepare a short talk on the phenomenon of migration. Make sure to include the following:

- the definition of migration;

...