Linguistic means and devices in the construction of an enemy image in mass media

Bryansk region

koronavirus??32

https://t.me/koronavirus32

Ivanovo region

Ivanovo region

https://t.me/ivanovoobl

Kaluga region

Coronavirus. OHQ. Kaluga region

https://t.me/stop_coronavirus40

Kostroma region

Stopcoronavirus | Kostroma

https://t.me/stopcoronaKSTR

Kursk region

Stopcoronavirus_Kursk region

https://t.me/stopviruskursk

Lipetsk region

Lipetsk region

https://t.me/lipobl

Oryol region

Coronavirus. OHQ information

https://t.me/orel_official

Ryazan region

Coronavirus. OHQ of Ryazan region

https://t.me/ryazanoblast_official

Smolensk region

Smolensk region against Covid-19

https://t.me/smolobl_vs_covid19

Tambov region

Tambov region

https://t.me/tmbcan

Tver region

Coronavirus information. Tver region

https://t.me/coronavirus_tverreg

Tula region

Tula region

https://t.me/tularegion71

Yaroslavl region

STOP! Coronavirus. Yaroslavl region

https://t.me/koronavirus76

3. Results

Quantitative research

In order to determine how often different regional media use certain phrases naming the reasons of the spread of infection, it seemed reasonable to start with counting the number of posts on the matter. The phrases that were searched for are the following:

? guests from Moscow

? came from another region

? came from [a foreign country]

? were visiting [someone] in a different region/city

These people seemed to be the mostly used reasons of the local residents becoming infected with COVID-19. The number of posts found using the search engine in Telegram is presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Region	Number of posts about people responsible for the infection (28.03.20-30.04.20)
Belgorod region	14
Voronezh region	15
Bryansk region	1
Ivanovo region	0
Kaluga region	2
Kostroma region	3
Kursk region	1
Lipetsk region	0
Oryol region	5
Ryazan region	15
Smolensk region	0
Tambov region	5
Tver region	1
Tula region	1
Yaroslavl region	0
Total: 62 posts

As it can be seen from the table, there were 62 posts written on the regional Telegram channels in 33 days between 28.03.20 and 30.04.20. That seems to be quite an extensive coverage of the topic - which is only natural considering its current importance. This fact also supports the argument that constant repetition is used in media to increase the effectiveness of the narrative points transmitted through them.

It should also be mentioned that different number of posts regarding the reasons for the spread of Coronavirus shows the uneven distribution of the necessity to do so. One can argue that in different regions local authorities use different approaches to handle the situation - however, this part of the study seems to need more extensive research.

Next, it is logical to proceed with further linguistic analysis introduced by Greimas. It consists of three levels of scrutinizing the media: discourse analysis, narrative analysis and deep level analysis. To present the tendencies apparent from the media posts written in the past month, a table was created (Table 3). It combines all the representative posts from different regions to clarify the suggestions made in the following sections of this paper. The phrases showing the social groups held accountable for the COVID-19 outbreak in the regions are in bold for the ease of understanding.

Table 3

Post (original)	Post (translation)
Belgorod region
В Белгородской области эпидобстановка неблагоприятная только из-за контактов с Москвой и Подмосковьем, очень много приехало людей к родственникам -- депздрав	In the Belgorod region, the epidemiological situation is unfavorable only because of contacts with Moscow and the Moscow region, a lot of people came to see their relatives - Depzdrav
В Красногвардейском районе -- первая смерть пациента с коронавирусом в Белгородской области, подтвердили «Белгород №1» два источника. Мужчина приехал из Москвы с пневмонией. Соболезнования близким и родным.	In the Krasnogvardeisky district - the first death of a patient with coronavirus in the Belgorod region, two sources confirmed to Belgorod No. 1. A man came from Moscow with pneumonia. Condolences to the near and dear ones.
Мы отслеживаем всех жителей, которые приезжают из Москвы и неблагополучных по коронавирусу регионов. Всех берём на учёт, в этом нам помогает транспортная полиция.	We track all residents who come from Moscow and regions that are not coronary for coronavirus. We take everyone into account, the transport police helps us in this.
Большинство заражений в Белгородской области связано с прибытием граждан из Москвы и Подмосковья -- Роспотребнадзор	Most infections in the Belgorod region are associated with the arrival of citizens from Moscow and the Moscow Region - Rospotrebnadzor
В Белгород, возможно, приехали двое россиян, прибывших из Доминиканской республики с коронавирусом. Но пока всем плевать.	Two people who arrived from the Dominican Republic with a coronavirus might have come to Belgorod. But for now, nobody cares.
Все 5 человек из Белгородской области, у которых оказался первый положительный результат на коронавирус, приехали из-за рубежа. Это «Белгород №1» заявили в областном правительстве. Сейчас в регионе ожидают результаты подтверждения тестов этих людей из федерального центра. Они должны прийти уже сегодня. Если результаты подтвердятся -- будет официально объявлено о первых заболевших коронавирусом в нашем регионе.	All 5 people from the Belgorod region, who had the first positive result for coronavirus, came from abroad. This was declared to "Belgorod No. 1" by the regional government. Now the region is waiting for the results of confirmation tests of these people from the federal centre. They should come today. If the results are confirmed, the first patients with coronavirus in our region will be officially announced.
Voronezh region
Информация о подтвержденных новых заражениях Covid-19 в Воронежской области В среду, 29 апреля, официально подтверждено заражение 39 человек в регионе. Среди новых выявленных заболевших -- 10 приезжих из Москвы и Московской области, а также двое детей (3 и 12 лет), заразившихся контактным способом. Пациенты находятся под регулярным наблюдением врачей и получают лечение. Полный круг контактов пациентов установлен, с ними ведётся работа.	Information about confirmed new Covid-19 infections in the Voronezh region On Wednesday, April 29, 39 people in the region were officially confirmed to be infected. Among the newly identified cases - 10 visitors from Moscow and the Moscow region, as well as two children (3 and 12 years old) who were infected by contact. Patients are under regular medical supervision and receive treatment. A full circle of patients' contacts has been established; work is being done with them.
В понедельник, 6 апреля, официально подтверждено заражение коронавирусом 9 человек, находящихся в регионе. Речь идет про: 1) женщину 63 лет, прибывшую из Франции, без клинических проявлений; 2) мужчину 72 лет, прибывшего из Франции, без клинических проявлений; 3) женщину 29 лет, приехавшую из соседнего региона России, слабо выраженные клинические проявления; 4) женщину 64 лет, приехавшую из Подмосковья, без клинических проявлений; 5) женщину 35 лет, выезжавшую в Москву, слабо выраженные клинические проявления; 6) женщину 49 лет, контактировавшую с приехавшим из-за рубежа, без клинических проявлений; 7) мальчика 7 лет, контактировавшего с приехавшим из-за рубежа, без клинических проявлений; 8) женщину 31 год, контактировавшую с приехавшим из-за рубежа, без клинических проявлений; 9) женщину 43 лет, прибывшую из Дании, умеренные клинические проявления.	On Monday, April 6, the coronavirus infection of 9 people in the region was officially confirmed. The following people are infected: 1) a woman of 63 years old, arrived from France, without clinical manifestations; 2) a man of 72 years old, who arrived from France, without clinical manifestations; 3) a woman of 29 years old, who came from a neighboring region of Russia, mild clinical manifestations; 4) a woman of 64 years old, who came from the Moscow region, without clinical manifestations; 5) a woman of 35 years traveling to Moscow, mild clinical manifestations; 6) a 49-year-old woman who had contact with a person who came from abroad, without clinical manifestations; 7) a boy of 7 years old who had contact with a person who came from abroad, without clinical manifestations; 8) a woman, 31 years old, who had contact with a person who came from abroad, without clinical manifestations; 9) a woman of 43 years old, who arrived from Denmark, moderate clinical manifestations.
Kaluga region
Житель Подмосковья с диагнозом коронавирус, оказавшийся в инфекционной больнице в Калуге, скончался. Мужчина приехал в наш регион уже имея тяжелые симптомы заболевания. К врачам он не обращался, на улице ему стало плохо, бригадой скорой помощи он был доставлен в инфекционное отделение в Калуге. Врачи сделали все возможное, чтобы спасти мужчину, но, к сожалению, из-за упущенного времени патологические процессы остановить не удалось. Он скончался.	A resident of the Moscow Region diagnosed with coronavirus, who ended up in an infectious diseases hospital in Kaluga, died. A man came to our region already having severe symptoms of the disease. He did not go to the doctors, he became ill on the street, he was taken to the infectious diseases ward in Kaluga by the ambulance team. Doctors did everything possible to save the man, but, unfortunately, because of the time lost, the pathological processes could not be stopped. He passed away.
Kostroma region
Первый случай заражения выявлен в Поназыревском районе - у гражданина, вернувшегося из другого региона. Большинство новых случаев связаны с контактами с людьми, прибывшими из других регионов страны (Москва, Подмосковье, Санкт-Петербург, Нижний-Новгород) и нарушением самоизоляции.	The first case of infection was detected in the Ponazyrevsky district - with a citizen who returned from another region. Most of the new cases are related to contacts with people who arrived from other regions of the country (Moscow, Moscow region, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod) and violation of self-isolation.
Kursk region
В настоящее время на карантине в домашних условиях под медицинским наблюдением 771 человек - это прибывшие из-за рубежа и контактировавшие с подозрительными или заболевшими COVID-2019. В областной инфекционной больнице им. Н.А. Семашко находятся 78 человек с признаками ОРВИ и пневмониями. Снят карантин с 1127 человек.	Currently, 771 people are under quarantine at home under medical supervision - they come from abroad and have contacted suspicious people or those infected with COVID-2019. In the regional infectious diseases hospital named after N.A. Semashko are 78 people with signs of acute respiratory viral infections and pneumonia. Quarantine ended for 1127 people.
Oryol region
На утро 23 апреля у нас подтверждено ещё 11 случаев заболевания коронавирусом. 3 - прибывшие из Москвы, 1- из-за границы, 7- контактных. Состояние всех удовлетворительное. Болховский район - 3, Хотынецкий район - 2 и Орловский район - 6.	On the morning of April 23, we confirmed another 11 cases of coronavirus. 3 - arrived from Moscow, 1 - from abroad, 7 - contact. All are in satisfactory condition. Bolkhovsky district - 3, Khotynetsky district - 2 and Oryol district - 6.
Ryazan region
По информации оперативной рабочей группы Правительства Рязанской области, по состоянию на 13.00 в регионе зарегистрировано 17 случаев заболевания коронавирусной инфекцией у граждан Российской Федерации, которые вернулись из туристических поездок из неблагополучных по COVID-2019 зарубежных стран или имели контакт с заболевшим коронавирусом.	According to the operational working group of the Government of the Ryazan Region, as of 13.00 in the region, 17 cases of coronavirus infection were registered in the region; these citizens returned from tourist trips in foreign countries that were affected by COVID-2019 or had contact with those infected with coronavirus.
Коронавирус подтвержден у пожилой пары, вернувшейся из путешествия по Европе, и у мужчины 27 лет, работающего в г.Москва в одной из охранных организаций. Все пациенты находятся под наблюдением специалистов и чувствуют себя удовлетворительно.	Coronavirus was confirmed for an elderly couple who returned from a trip to Europe, and in a 27-year-old man working in one of the security organizations in Moscow. All patients are under the supervision of specialists and feel satisfactory.
Tambov region
За последние сутки выздоровели 11 человек. Из них девять покинули инфекционные стационары. Это шесть мужчин в возрасте от 27 до 43 лет, две женщины 44 и 30 лет и одна девочка 15 лет. Все они прибыли из Москвы или имели контакт с прибывшими. Лечение проходили в Тамбовской инфекционной больнице, Котовской больнице и Сосновской ЦРБ.	Over the past day, 11 people have recovered. Of these, nine have left infectious hospitals. These are six men aged 27 to 43 years, two women 44 and 30 years old and one girl 15 years old. All of them either arrived from Moscow or had contact with the arrivals. Treatment was carried out in the Tambov Infectious Disease Hospital, Kotovskaya Hospital and Sosnovskaya Central District Hospital.
Tver region
Губернатор Игорь Руденя на совещании с главами призвал четко соблюдать рекомендации федеральных ведомств по профилактике коронавируса и проявлять бдительность к тем, кто приехал из стран, где отмечены вспышки COVID-19.	Governor Igor Rudenya at a meeting with the heads called for strict adherence to the recommendations of federal departments for the prevention of coronavirus and to be vigilant towards those who came from countries where outbreaks of COVID-19 were registered.

Having all the representative posts combined, it is easier to proceed with describing some of the tendencies emerging from them.

Qualitative analysis

1. The discourse level

There are several tendencies one can notice on the level of linguistic analysis. They can be categorized as follows:

? There are three main categories of people constantly mentioned as the main reasons for the COVID-19 outbreak in the regions: people coming home from Moscow in search for self-isolation, people coming home from other regions and those who returned from a trip to a foreign country (regardless of the reasons for such trips). One can argue that this “classification of actants” creates an opposition between “us” - the residents of the region - and “them” - people from either of these categories. Moreover, it is also can be considered labelling because of the fact that these people are now perceived within this negative framework - whether you are from Moscow, other region or a foreign country, you are now perceived as a threat.

? The language used in these posts is mostly formal and lets “the facts speak”, as one might say. There is little to no expressive vocabulary in the posts and they are presented as simple reports on the development of the situation with the virus. The extensive usage of number only supports this stance.

? However, there are several cases are worth mentioning separately - namely, those of Belgorod and Voronezh regions. The words chosen by these regional media seem to be the most hostile of the sample - Belgorod №1 perceives Muscovites as the only reason why “epidemiological situation is unfavourable” in the region and despises the authorities for neglecting their duties due to the lack of measures taken in regards to the two people from Dominican republic coming to Belgorod (“But for now, nobody cares”). Voronezh, in its turn, provides an overwhelmingly factual yet unsympathetic post with detailed information about people coming from either of the places mentioned above and infecting the local residents.

? There are no negative personifications or precedent phenomena - it might be partially explained by the fact that the language itself is formal and unexpressive.

? Some regions are more prone to citing the groups of people in question as to the sole reason for the COVID-19 outbreak. It might be explained by several reasons: from mere lack of necessity to do so to the number of people coming to a region from different places. It seems that a deeper investigation of these reasons might become a topic for future research.

Thus, one can conclude that the main linguistic techniques used to create the enemy image in these posts are labelling and dehumanization (formalization), rarely - expressive language (although muted). One can also suggest that there exists a certain degree of simplification - instead of detailed explanation of the causes and effects of coronavirus, Telegram channels choose to shorten the distance between them and the audience by mentioning certain groups of people as the primary reason for the outbreak. Moreover, it creates an interesting perspective in regards to the whole narrative of “coronavirus vs the regions”.

2. The narrative level

On the narrative level, the situation becomes increasingly intriguing. Starting with the end of March 2020, regional Telegram channels start posting their regular reports on how the situation with the COVID-19 outbreak develops. At first, they are reluctant to admit there are any people infected by the virus - although it is quite hard to prove, there are suggestions stating that the first infected people appeared back in February 2020. Then, throughout the entire period the author explores, some of them, although admitting the outbreak happening in the regions, present anything and anyone as the reason for the outbreak - apart from the local authorities, who, in their own words, praise them for the measures taken to prevent the virus from further spreading. Nowadays (in May 2020), one can see that the narrative changed again - due to the overwhelming number of infected people, the media start to embrace the problem as it is no longer possible to switch the burden of being the root of the problem to other people.

In order to analyze the narrative using the model the author chose, the following questions need an answer (Table 4):

Table 4

Question	Answer
Who is the subject of the quest? The subject is usually the person or group of people most talked about, for example “the British army” or “the American president.” It gives the overall perspective from which a media item is composed.	The subject of the “quest” - and, consequently, texts - are the residents of the Russian regions.
Who or what is the object of the quest? Is there more than one object? The goal could be concrete, such as acquiring money, or abstract, such as acquiring knowledge.	The object of the quest is to overcome the coronavirus outbreak, while also maintaining social and economic stability in the region.
Does the subject have helpers and opponents? A helper can be a person, an object, or a quality. The opponent is an obstacle - for example a rock, or the attribute of laziness.	The helpers in this narrative are local authorities - they implement measures to prevent the virus from spreading uncontrollably and take care of the population's concerns. The opponents are people of the three categories mentioned above - people coming home from Moscow to self-isolate, people coming home from other regions and those who returned from a trip to a foreign country
Who or what is the sender? What motivates the quest of the subject? Is it a person, an idea, a desire, or a sense of obligation?	The sender here is either the admin of a regional Telegram channel or - ultimately, considering they are all official and are run by people close to the local government - the local authorities themselves. They set the agenda and determine the narrative's direction. They are motivated by the desire to look professional and competent in the eyes of their higher-ups and the locals (who, might I add, will participate in elections at some point). They also do not want to be held accountable for the COVID-19 outbreak happening in their lands.

Thus, it can be seen from the narrative analysis that, although the local media do not set enemy image creation as their main goal, they, directed by the local authorities, use certain manipulative methods to maintain power and authority, thus almost unintentionally creating the negative narrative.

It should also be mentioned that the narrative analysis suggests the implementation of propaganda in these posts. With accordance to Ellul's theory, it can be named the Social Horizontal Rational Propaganda of Integration - a self-organized, fact-based propaganda aimed at excluding certain groups of people from the landscape and spread among people with similar social status. A pre-propaganda seems to also be evident from the narrative considering the fact that people from smaller regions tend to despise - to a certain degree- people who can afford to travel abroad or move to Moscow, which can be partially explained by their lower living standards. For at least 20 years, polls show that Muscovites, according to residents of the regions, live at their expense, since all financial resources flow from the regions and territories to the capital. According to WCIOM, in 1999, 81% of Russians were sure that Moscow lives spending the money of the regions, in 2002 - 82%, in 2004 - 85%.

3. The deep level analysis

In this part, Greimas suggests that a researcher needs to take a step back from the text and address the bigger picture - in this case, it is the issue of COVID-19 pandemic becoming the point of no return for the whole world, reshaping our perception of certain things and sometimes causing people to blame each other for whatever consequences they might face because of it. Ultimately, it can be said that the main underlying opposition one can currently see is not between people themselves, but between people and the virus. It can be named the main “villain” or the “enemy” of the current narrative structures, but, when facing the inability to hold a harmful accountable for the frustration we face, we turn them to people who might be scolded, ostracized and punished for the mere fact we experience our fears and frustrations. We cannot talk to the virus about the reasons why it spreads so rapidly, but we can close Muscovits in an isolator to prevent them from infecting the locals. At the end of the day, it turns out that the opposition described in this paper - one group of people blaming another - creates itself without anyone deliberately nurturing it, because we need to blame someone for all the bad things happening with us - and we find those victims no matter what.

Discussion

When analyzing media texts - especially those found on the Internet - one should always remember that they are to remain the subject of scrutiny and detailed study. Not only because the Internet is by no means a completely reliable source of information and is too free and easy to access to control anything within it, but also because sometimes these texts do not set informativeness and truthfulness as their primary goal - consciously or unconsciously. This study suggests that currently, during the COVID-19 pandemic which has changed people's perception of some of the aspects of their lives, there can be observed a very interesting phenomenon - while switching the blame from themselves to whatever group of people they might find, local Russian authorities created an enemy in the eyes of their residents - a person carrying and spreading the virus.

Implementing Greimass' method of analyzing media texts, the following observations were made:

1. Discourse level

On the discourse level, the following techniques were found to be implemented”

? simplification

? labeling

? repetition

? formalization

? creating of opposition

These techniques combined create a non-assertive yet powerful image, leading the local residents of Russian regions to believe that people who, for whatever reason, left the region to come back during the outbreak, can be a threat for them, their relatives and their loved ones.

2. Narrative level

A positive narrative about local authorities vs no evaluation of the opposite side's actions. People returned from abroad, other regions or Moscow are mentioned as the cause of infection without blaming them with emotional or evaluative vocabulary. It seems that the focal point of the narrative here is to show that local authorities are not to blame for the spread of the virus and they do everything they can to tame it - rather than to blame foreigners for the problem.

3. Deep level

Ultimately, the main enemy in the current Russian mass media narrative is the virus itself. Its rapid spreading and high mortality rate make people anxious and scared for their relatives and close ones. Thus, the underlying opposition here is “virus vs people”. However, considering the uncontrollable - to a certain extent - nature of the virus and its consequences, people turn their frustration to living objects - those who might spread the virus.

In conclusion, one might see that the enemy image creation, in this case, was not deliberate per se, but turned out to be extremely effective. Moreover, it is shown that as of today, the narrative has changed and the extent to which certain groups of people are blamed for the spread of Coronavirus in the regions is significantly lower - which happened arguably because of the overwhelming number of those infected every day, which can no longer be explained by the fact that these people left the region.

This study is seen as having perspectives for future research. The number of sociological polls conducted to explore the attitude of the residents of smaller Russian regions towards Muscovites is by no means exhaustive. Moreover, the methods implemented in this study can be extrapolated to other countries - e.g., Italy, where similar situation occurred.

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