Evaluative lexical units’ realization in the English political discourse as a means of worldview formation for the target audience
A theoretical meta-framework for the analysis of political discourse embodied in the sources we will draw on and the conversation that they engender. Establishing an appraisal matrix. A taxonomy of specific linguistic devices employed in appraisals.
| Ðóáðèêà | Èíîñòðàííûå ÿçûêè è ÿçûêîçíàíèå |
| Âèä | äèïëîìíàÿ ðàáîòà |
| ßçûê | àíãëèéñêèé |
| Äàòà äîáàâëåíèÿ | 28.08.2020 |
| Ðàçìåð ôàéëà | 193,8 K |
Îòïðàâèòü ñâîþ õîðîøóþ ðàáîòó â áàçó çíàíèé ïðîñòî. Èñïîëüçóéòå ôîðìó, ðàñïîëîæåííóþ íèæå
Ñòóäåíòû, àñïèðàíòû, ìîëîäûå ó÷åíûå, èñïîëüçóþùèå áàçó çíàíèé â ñâîåé ó÷åáå è ðàáîòå, áóäóò âàì î÷åíü áëàãîäàðíû.
Euphemisms and dysphemisms refer to lexical permutations that serve to reassign semantic value of a word in order to imbue it with a more auspicious or unfavorable meaning. Such adjustments seek to divorce the word in question from its' original circle of association by virtue of inserting it into another semantic family that possesses desirable properties with. Some researchers even suggested a pronounced cognitive element to this dyad which, according to them, serve to materialize a “forbidden reality” (Gomez, 2012). In a somewhat grip take in the phenomenon, George Orwell dubbed the two instruments “…designed to make lies sound truthful and lies respectable”, referring to their ability to distort political landscape and mislead populace in service of nefarious pursuits. Of note is the fact that both notions frequently recruit other tropes such as epithets or metaphors to fulfill their objectives, which may create occasional points of overlap.
Euphemisms are frequently invoked to deal with unpleasant, sensitive or taboo topics in a publicly consequential manner. They may be used to:
· Avoid altogether an incriminating or otherwise inconvenient topic by redressing it in neutral terms so as to deflect attention from its' true nature.
· Downplay the magnitude of the phenomenon under discussion when concealing it is out of the question.
· Augment one's persuasive rhetoric to promote one's agenda more effectively.
Euphemisms weave themselves into conversations through a variety of means depending on the phenomenon subjected to transmutation and the desired outcome (Galperin, 1981):
· Phonetic transformations are called upon when one must have recourse to coarse language without violating rules of appropriate self-expression in a regulated conversation space. They may entail simply omitting the most vulgar part of a profanity (You are so full instead of You're so full of shit, which suggests dishonesty). They may compel one to deliberately misspell and mispronounce the word so that it deviates from originally shunned units enough to become permissible while still maintaining a recognizable phonetic profile (What the duck instead of What the fuck). Finally, one way seek resort to acronyms to smuggle a taboo expression past societal censorship whilst preserving its' semantics (His statement was pure BS and you know it. That SOB is one sneaky-ass lad instead of His statement was pure bullshit. That son of a bitch is one sneaky-ass lad).
· Understatement (Crespo-Fernandez 2014) surrogates a salient expression with a more delicate one of similar semantic properties that diminishes the gravity of one's condition (He cannot hold his liquor for sure instead of He is totally shitfaced, isn't he?).
· Substitution represents the quintessence form of euphemism whereby an ethically inappropriate expression is replaced in its' entirety with one that may not be commonly associated with the core meaning of the former (That wasn't theft, that was a temporary unilateral appropriation of property! Don't think of it as censorship, consider it as “selective viewing experience”. “Unfortunately, due to your subpar performance, we are going to have to relieve you of your operational duties” That's what the notice said. - So, you fucked up a job and now they're firing you? - Pretty much. Those aren't a bunch of civilians we accidentally peppered with lead and shrapnel, but an “acceptable measure of collateral damage”.).
· Metaphoric transformation replaces an expression with a metaphor, metonymic, idiomatic or comparative expression to comply with the rules of conversation space without sacrificing persuasive impact (Our boys really did the number on those jarheads instead of Our soldiers killed a lot of their soldiers).
· Slang based euphemisms imply usage of special terms to which only ingroup members may be privy, making it exceptionally suited for concealment and covert communication.
· Foreign words may also act as a substitute for expressions to sensitive to utter in one's mother tongue. It may also serve as a vivid marker of one's allegiance and promote power distance and imbalance, for an agenda disclosed at least partially in foreign language may be completely incomprehensible to one who does not speak the language, excluding him wholly from the conversation around the topic (Ah, papperlapapp (a German colloquial term)! Instead of This is such bullshit!).
· Circumvolution is a rather peculiar form of euphemism as instead of revising the core term itself, it actively seeks to obfuscate the issue by inundating the recipients with superfluous information instead of using succinct, forthright references.
Euphemisms that depend heavily on substitution and other forms of over concealment are of particular appeal to us considering their notably high incidence in political discourse. Owing to the fact that they undergo the most drastic transformation, they avail one a lucrative opportunity for concealment and linguistic subterfuge. The persistent misuse (or intentional abuse) often becomes internalized as default modus operandi for politicians who wish to obfuscate their wrongdoing, limiting public's ability to scrutinize politicians' agenda (Mazlum & Afshin, 2016). This in turn creates a power imbalance between political actors and their constituency as well as contenders and rivals since the former hold a disproportionate sway in determining how an event is to be perceived (if at all), which in turn dictates clearance to debates around the topic, from which those not “in the know” may be excluded. Institutions of power are especially culpable of this, with government institutions and various bureaucratic establishments going so far as to create entire subsystems of language populated entirely by such misleading and clandestine words, which leads to the formation of what has been termed “doublespeak”. Population will be less likely to hold its' government accountable for legitimizing torture of prisoners, for instance, if it is presented under the guise of legislation that is designed to “augment law enforcement agencies' capacity to carry out their services by enabling them to utilize enhanced interrogation techniques”.
Dysphemisms function similarly to euphemisms save for the fact that they seek to achieve quite the opposite effect by vilifying and denigrating the subject matter (Allan & Burridge, 1991). Dysphemisms may present themselves as follows:
· Synecdoche narrows down a reference to a single property which is meant to be foregrounded (What would you expect from an apparatchik, huh? As a way to allude to one's employment in Soviet bureaucracy as a sole defining characteristic).
· Epithets which carry negative connotation are frequently used for dysphemistic ends, amplifying the targeted quality.
· Names and official titles are pregnant with all sorts of assumed notions and expectations of acceptable conduct. As such, making use of or omitting them carries a lot of implications as to the relationship dynamic between interlocutors in that they may be considered as either an insult or a gesture of intimacy.
· Contextual dysphemisms do not presuppose any linguistic transmutations per se, but rather draw their salience from context and achieve modification by virtue of emerging in a conversation pertaining to a social group where such parlance may be considered vulgar or improper, all whilst considered neutral or even commendable in another.
Euphemisms and dysphemisms are as diverse and commonplace as they are malleable, with semantic transfers between two categories occurring on a regular basis. Therethrough, words which were once considered obscene may come to redeem themselves in the public opinion and be granted admission into regular discoursive space, same as innocuous, sanitized expressions may in time evolve o indicate something condemnable, their clearance into polite conversations revoked and their practitioners disavowed.
These devices have been observed to have a particularly high incidence as regards their role in engendering the perceived distance and difference between in-group and out-group individuals (Alieva, 2012). When applied to the former, euphemisms tend to downplay potentially sensitive aspects of their actions (such as inflicting purposeful damage on the enemy or causing unintended casualties) while foregrounding notions that highlight politically favorable outcomes. By way of illustrating, one may designate an airstrike that killed a lot of enemies as “an airborne tactical action that achieved its' objectives and neutralized the threat”. Such notions appeal to and promote the humanity and personhood of ingroup members while serving to divorce outgroup individuals from their respective humanity and personality. The distance created in such a manner serves to invoke and amplify empathy toward ingroup individuals while simultaneously precluding similar sentiments toward outgroup persons, which by extension may portray the latter as deserving of depravity inflicted upon them by the former.
Conceptual metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) rank among some of the most exploitable tropes insofar as loaded, politically charged vocabulary is concerned owing to its' noteworthy persuasive qualities stemming from its' ability to represent a novel concept in familiar terms, which gives those in control of a word-choice a disproportionate amount of influence over how an entity thuswise depicted will be perceived. Indeed, metaphors are heraled as linchpins of human cognition and creativity, asserting its' indispensability in political stance-taking and decision making. Utilizing emotionally salient target words was observed to exert tangible influence on public opinions regarding the matter in question (Thibodeau & Boroditsky 2011). One way to look at metaphors is that they resemble solar eclipses in that they conceal the target notion whilst forwarding its' most prominent properties which are perceptible to those equipped with appropriate means to detect them, which in our case is represented by access to discourse around the subject matter and knowledge in general, which in turn allows us to consider metaphors as exercise in power and dominance depending on their wording. Indeed, by manipulating its' constituent variables, one may create notions which, unlike their original forms, are more suitable to accommodate one's agenda (Lippmann, 1965) and thus enable one to advance his goal through dishonesty and political subterfuge (Sniderman, 1993; Edelman, 1988). Amplifying the role of metaphors in political discourse is the sheer volume of the latter which effectively inundates its' participants with dissonant information competing for their attention. Such experience can be overwhelming, which, combined with steadily declining sophistication of political constituency in the wake of proliferation of oversimplified information sources, may compel one to seek means of narrowing down the information stream to more governable proportions (Neuman et al. 1992). This maneuver not only relieves the strain on one's mental capacity for processing, but also avails one more leeway in interpreting new information in a fashion which coincides with one's previously held beliefs, as it appears to be more malleable the less nuanced it is. To that end, it was determined that simplistic metaphors invoked in a repeated and consistent fashion were most effective in swaying public opinion (Edelman, 1964). Such easy to digest metaphors seem to channel their salience through their capacity to eliminate uncertainty, appeal to the familiar and afford gratification, all of which are considered potent psychological agents (Freud, 1960).
Epithets are considered by many to be the gateway into the domain of evaluation due to their simplicity and versatility. At their core, they hinge on disparity between intrinsic and verifiable fact-based information and subjective attributions. To explicate one's partiality, one merely needs to couple an entity with a quality not native to its' being: while think fog refers to observable physical properties, oppressive, grim fog betrays one's inner appraisal of an object rooted in his emotional state.
Similes function somewhat similarly to epithets in that they foreground a certain feature of an entity, although one needs to draw on an entirely different unrelated entity to supply the necessary quality and impart it onto the object in question.
Nicknames can be a powerful axiological instrument if used appropriately. At their core, they amount to purposefully devised monikers that supersede one's personal name, availing one considerable space for semantic manipulation. Nicknames are flexible, with nearly every trope possessing the potential to become one should it be deliberately and repeatedly used in lieu of a person' real name, be it through consensus or by virtue of imposition (Adams, 2009). Stemming from this elasticity is nicknames' ability to be leveraged in creating new mental models that incorporate the creators' attitude and worldview values (Shustova, 2015).
Taking all of the aforesaid into consideration, we may summarize that political discourse is governed by dynamics of power and influence, as well as attendant considerations like access, group membership and other social aspects. The balance of power is attained and enforced through evaluative vocabulary which explicates one's framework-bound position and underlines one's treatment of other participants. The power struggle stems from socially salient issues which impact wellbeing and social status of those involved, such as distributions of material and immaterial goods, prestige and social recognition, identity formation and retention and so forth. Evaluation is dictated by a host of interrelated factors which we have arranged into a hierarchical structure:
1. Identification of a scene (as per Tomkin's script theory) - identifies participants, establishes the contextual framework and ascertains the power balance.
2. Axiological alignment (as per Wierzbicka's semantic primes theory) - determines whether the scenario is fundamentally “good” or “bad”, as well as designates participants as “allied” or “hostile”, separating them into ingroup or outgroup categories (us versus them).
3. Script selection (as per Tonkin's script theory & affect theories) - identifies the most suitable general sequence of actions with respect to the scene unfolding.
4. Script adjustment and refinement (as per Martin & White's Appraisal Theory) - the selected script undergoes minute circumstantial alignment in accordance with three criteria: attitude, engagement and graduation to fine-tune the message and ensure its' potency in conveying one's attitude.
5. Enactment of evaluation through specific vocabulary (as per our taxonomy of evaluative lexis).
Practical part
Having established the evaluative framework, we now turn to analysis of entities pertaining to contemporary political discourse. To that effect, we intend to undertake a qualitative inductive analysis of the discourse surrounding the ongoing coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic. In order to amass sufficient body of linguistic data, we will draw on the following sources: 4 statements made first-hand by politicians and other immediate actors either in written or oral form (which we shall designate as “primary sources”), 6 information pieces that involve processing of the information supplied by primary sources such as newspaper articles, political commentaries, opinion pieces and the like (which we shall designate as “secondary sources”). The analysis will observe the layout delineated at the end of the preceding paragraph on a collective basis with regards to the sources' political and geographic origin. By conducting such an investigation, we purport to reveal qualitative and quantitative regularities in terms of incidence of evaluative vocabulary, as well as make a supposition regarding participant specific peculiarities of such appraisals, which we presume to be governed by cultural and power-pertaining considerations.
The coronavirus pandemic is an ongoing global health crisis caused by a novel strain of an infectious disease commonly referred to as COVID-19. This pathogen initially surfaced in a Chinese city of Wuhan, after which it quickly spread around the globe, starting the pandemic. With more than 2 million contagion cases worldwide and a death toll of approximately 2 hundred thousand people, it ranks among some of the most severe institutional outbreaks of the last couple of decades. The pandemic brought forth wholesale economic, social and political disruption, forcing many countries to institute nationwide lockdowns with all concomitant repercussions. The magnitude of disruption, lack of uniformity in containment efforts as well as the profusion of misinformation regarding the origin of the disease has engendered considerable controversy and political dispute, particularly between China and the USA, with either side exchanging invectives regarding their roles in the spread of the virus. As such, political discourse around this topic is replete with emotion-driven evaluations. To ensure that we obtain the most diverse and representative data possible, we will draw on media from geographically and politically diverse English-speaking sources.
We will attempt to interrogate in a comprehensive fashion a combination of primary and secondary sources which, as stated before, are comprised of third-party commentaries on the events which constitute the present domain of political discourse. We have selected 6 newspaper articles from various periodicals, 3 from countries typically referred to as “Western” such as the US and the UK, and 3 from Chinese outlets. We anticipate uncovering culture- and politics-driven definitive aspects of the coverage of the pandemic, as well as identifying the most salient tropes that will presumably enjoy the highest rates of usage.
Western sources are presented by the following outlets: Bloomberg, The Guardian, Independent, regular government-held press conferences by the US, UK political bodies.
Bloomberg - 01.04.2020 - China Concealed Extent of Virus Outbreak, U.S. Intelligence Says
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: US news outlets (good, in-group), US intelligence community (good, in-group), US government officials (good, in-group), Chinese government officials (bad, out-group), presumably the audience of these news outlets (good, in-group).Actions: Information sharing, ostensibly deliberate concealment of information. |
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Script selection |
Affect - unclear, supposedly a mix of interest and anger. |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: - · Judgement: The Chinese Communist Party has lied, is lying, and will continue to lie about coronavirus to protect the regime. (1 unit total) · Appreciation: - Engagement · Conv. space contraction: US intelligence community concluded; report concludes that China's numbers are fake; “The reality is that”; “What appears evident now is that”; “The claim that the United States has more coronavirus deaths than China is false.”; “this much is painfully obvious.”; Deborah Birx...said Tuesday that China's public reporting influenced assumptions elsewhere in the world; The U.S. intelligence community's conclusion is an attempt to divert attention…editor-in-chief of China's state-run Global Times…said; There was no way for serious data faking to occur in today's China.”; (10 units total) · Conv. space expansion: US intelligence says; according to three US officials; But the thrust, they said,; Two of the officials said that ; China's reported virus data appear to be on the “light side”; The country has reported 82000 cases and 3,300 deaths, according to data compiled by John Hopkins University; “Their numbers seem to be a little bit on the light side,”; “I think we're probably missing a significant amount of data”; Iran, Russia, Indonesia and especially North Korea...as probable under-counts.; Others including Saudi Arabia and Egypt may also be playing down their numbers; (10 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): Republican lawmakers have been particularly harsh about China's role; to be a little bit on the light side, U.S. Secretary of State Michael Pompeo...has repeatedly accused China”; Do your best to collect the data. Do your best to share that information”; (6 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): - |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: - |
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Dysphemisms: - |
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Similes: - |
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Epithets: - |
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Conceptual Metaphors: To be on the light side; Stacks of thousands of urns outside funeral homes have driven public doubt in Beijing's reporting; who has sought to shift blame for the U.S. outbreak; “this much is painfully obvious.”; surging deaths in the U.S”; Western officials have pointed to Iran, Russia, Indonesia; playing down their numbers; (7 units total) |
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Nicknames: - |
The Guardian - 11.04.2020 - China clamping down on coronavirus research, deleted pages suggest
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: US news outlets (good, in-group), academic experts (good, in-group), Chinese academic institutions (good, out-group), Chinese authorities (bad, out-group), presumably the audience of these news outlets (good, in-group).Actions: Information sharing, ostensibly deliberate concealment of information, censorship invective. |
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Script selection |
Affect - unclear, possibly interest. |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: - · Judgement: “controlling the narrative is more important than the public health”; “but the narrative is paramount.”; While the exact origin of the pandemic is still not certain,”; the documents were generally consistent with efforts by China to control the narrative of the pandemic.; The foreign ministry spokesman Zhao Lijian suggested without evidence that; (5 units total) · Appreciation: - Engagement · Conv. space contraction: A technical analysis of the cached websites indicated that the posts were published on verified university websites; Scientists believe the transmission was similar; Carrico said those efforts had been evident in communications; (3 units total) · Conv. space expansion: Move is likely to be part of attempt to control the narrative; documents published online by Chinese universities appear to show; Two websites for leading Chinese universities appear to have recently published and then removed pages; “details about its origin and the first weeks of the pandemic…may be considered”; China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) appears to have published and then deleted new requirements.; A separate document obtained by the Guardian...appears to be from the Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University.; Another notice, which appears to have been published on.; A source who alerted the Guardian...said they were concerned; …what appeared to be an attempt by Chinese authorities; The notices appear to be part of a broader push to manage research.; Scientists have said the virus probably originated in bats; the US military might have brought the virus to Wuhan.; (12 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): the Chinese government had a heavy focus on how the evolution and management of the virus is perceived; “more important than public health”; “details may be considered particularly sensitive.”; “the government really wants to control the narrative…very tightly.”; (5 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): the documents were generally consistent with efforts by China to control the narrative of the pandemic.; (1 unit total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: - |
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Dysphemisms: - |
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Similes: - |
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Epithets: - |
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Conceptual Metaphors: China clamping down on coronavirus research; China is cracking down on publication of academic research; “more important than…economic fallout.”; a broader push to” (4 units total) |
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Nicknames: - |
Independent - 11.04.2020 - The myth of the Great Britain must finally end when our government has failed us so badly with the coronavirus
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The UK government (bad, in-group), the UK population (good, in-group), Rachel Shabi, the author (good, in-group), presumably the audience of this news outlet (good, in-group).Actions: Pandemic containment, ostensibly deliberate concealment of information, information sharing, forwarding of an opinion. |
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Script selection |
Affect - anger, possibly distress, possibly disgust. |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: a staggering absence; It is an astonishing… spasm; each loss a spiral of shock and pain; medics from those countries implored; hospitals desperately battle to save lives.; the most appalling symptoms; miserable neglect and inequality.; Shocking death counts.; the shameful treatment of healthcare and other key workers.; (9 units total) · Judgement: stretched hospitals; stripped-back welfare state; Britain's tabloid fronts are love-ins for Boris Johnson; hospitals desperately battle to save lives; Ministers praise the NHS; staff misusing their protective gear; we squandered our head start.; And some criticism is understandably tempered.; yet there are persistent gaps and elisions; decisions which left our healthcare system hollowed out, fragmented, under-funded and outsourced.; crumbling infrastructure, ; miserable neglect and inequality.; a terrible mythology; Bad planning, misjudged strategies, bungled messaging.; (17 units total) · Appreciation: we watched in horror as; our precious head start.; soothing messages from the Queen…; (3 units total) Engagement · Conv. space contraction: questions must be asked of the government's handling of the crisis; ministers will face “difficult questions”; it grows ever more damning; If there is any doubt that things may now be different, look to neighbouring Germany.; mistakes cannot now be unmade.; (6 units total) · Conv. space expansion: we may face…; Keir Starmer, says; PPE shortages may be down to staff misusing their protective gear, rather than government failures to provide it.; yet suggest PPE shortages may be down to staff.; (4 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): the most amount of deaths in Europe; yet more troubling news; we wake each day; lives afflicted with the most appalling symptoms; medics from those countries implored; As our death toll soars beyond comprehension; political decisions stretching back decades.; it grows ever more damning; the extra weeks in which we may have lessened the virus spread.; other grave mistakes.; It is an extraordinary feat of PR; exceptionally so. (13 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): diminished social care; stripped-back welfare state; decisions which left our healthcare system hollowed out, fragmented, under-funded and outsourced.; crumbling infrastructure; (7 units total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: |
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Dysphemisms: Britain's tabloid fronts are love-ins for Boris Johnson; commentaries that would make Saddam's stenographers blush.; Matt Hancock's “Herculean” efforts to source supplies.; a “Blitz spirit.”; (4 units total) |
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Similes: |
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Epithets: stripped-back welfare state; a staggering absence of scrutiny; It is an astonishing collective spasm; hospitals desperately battle to save lives; lives afflicted with the most appalling symptoms; Matt Hancock's “Herculean” efforts to source supplies.; our precious head start.; other grave mistakes.; dismal reality; It is an extraordinary feat of PR; miserable neglect and inequality.; soothing messages from the Queen; Shocking death counts.; (13 units total) |
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Conceptual Metaphors: stretched hospitals; In the midst of a national emergency; we wake each day; It is an …collective spasm; a writing forward of history while stripping agency from the present time.”; each loss a spiral of shock and pain; hospitals desperately battle to save lives…; gushing commentaries; …broadcasters parrot the health secretary's…efforts.; They are patting heath workers on the back while simultaneously punching them in the stomach.; COVID-19 deaths climbed in Italy.; to avoid sleepwalking into the same nightmare.; As our death toll soars; need for unity in the face of national crisis.; as an underlying factor.; has camouflaged the real Britain; Now a similar sleight of hand is playing out across sections of our media.; cloaked in the illusion of a Great Britain.; built on inflated pride.; (21 units total) |
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Nicknames: Brand Britain…; (1 unit total) |
President Donald Trump addresses coronavirus response in a news conference - 4/27/2020
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The President of the US (ambivalent, in-group), The population of the US (good, in-group), conference attendees, mostly reporters (ambivalent, in-group), COVID-19 (inanimate, bad, out-group).Actions: Information sharing |
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Script selection |
Affect - enjoyment |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: a horrible situation; we express our gratitude; Cleveland team has done a wonderful job; workers that are doing terrific things; this horrible plague; this vicious virus; (6 units total) · Judgement: our comprehensive strategy.; all parts of the country are either in good shape; we've taken unprecedented action; they were targeted unfairly by China; we've met this moment with American ingenuity; (5 units total) · Appreciation: we've had such tremendous support; our comprehensive strategy; we continue to see encouraging signs; a superseding hotspot; what Wal-Mart and the others have done has been nothing short of amazing; testing that's been developed and being developed right now has been truly an amazing thing; Cleveland team has done a wonderful job; they have done a phenomenal job; workers that are doing terrific things; there's tremendous energy; (10 units total) Engagement · Conv. space contraction: - · Conv. space expansion: - Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): extraordinary devotion to our citizens; we've had such tremendous support; these goals work in tandem, they work side by side; We've launched the most ambitious testing effort; testing that's been developed and being developed right now has been truly an amazing thing; I want to thank Roshan in particular; what Wal-Mart and the others have done has been nothing short of amazing; testing that's been developed and being developed right now has been truly an amazing thing; our scientists and our lab technicians are working day and night in; this army of health care professionals; he number of tests performed across the country began to absolutely skyrocket; the full power and strength of the federal government; galvanizing the research community in the commercial lab; who is literally working day in and day out; (15 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): all parts of the country are either in good shape; (1 unit total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: |
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Dysphemisms: this horrible plague (1 unit total) |
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Similes: |
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Epithets: we've had such tremendous support; a horrible situation; we've taken unprecedented action; we've made tremendous progress; they have done a phenomenal job; Cleveland team has done a wonderful job; workers that are doing terrific things; a can-do attitude; this horrible plague; this vicious virus; (10 units total) |
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Conceptual Metaphors: we continue to see encouraging signs; all parts of the country are either in good shape; a superseding hotspot; situation that we've been confronted with; these hard-fought gains; loved ones have been stolen from us; thousands of Americans… waging a brave fight against the virus; here's a hunger for getting our country back; ensuring the health of our economy is vital to ensuring the health of our nation; these goals work in tandem, they work side by side; those two have really stepped forward; our scientists and our lab technicians are working day and night in; we will be rolling that out …over the coming weeks; they have pivoted from; this army of health care professionals; get these sites up and running as fast as possible; he number of tests performed across the country began to absolutely skyrocket; we're deploying the full power and strength of the federal government; really unlocking the full capacity of the state; the asymptomatic cases are quickly tracked and traced; galvanizing the research community in the commercial lab; they were targeted unfairly by China; who is literally working day in and day out; because of this partnership you forge; (27 units total) |
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Nicknames: the invisible enemy; (1 unit total) |
Boris Johnson gives coronavirus update for first time since return to work - 01.05.2020
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The Prime Minister of the UK (good, in-group), The population of the UK (good, in-group), conference attendees, mostly reporters (ambivalent, in-group), COVID-19 (inanimate, bad, out-group).Actions: information sharing |
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Script selection |
Affect - enjoyment, possibly anger. |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: challenges...that have been so naughty and infuriating; (2 unit total) · Judgement: there are also many remarkable voluntary organizations; jumping to conclusions; (2 units total) · Appreciation: colossal sums in loans; (1 unit total) Engagement · Conv. space contraction: we are past the peak of this disease, were past the peak and we are on the downward slope; that of course translates into; we totally understand that; it's definitely not a magic bullet; (5 units total) · Conv. space expansion: somewhere at the beginning of April; radio experts believe there is a; (2 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): everyone responsible for tackling these problems; heart and soul, day and night to get it right; massive collective effort to shield the NHS; we are past the peak of this disease were past the peak and we are on the downward slope; it is vital that we do not now lose control; you can see a slightly flatter situation in some other places; I expect there to be a bit of a plateau stage; as strongly as we can; we totally understand that; unlock the economy gradually; were massively ramping up testing; (13 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): we've got to calibrate our measures; (1 unit total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: staying in enforced confinement; (1 unit total) |
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Dysphemisms: |
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Similes: |
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Epithets: challenges...that have been so naughty and infuriating; colossal sums in loans; (2 units total) |
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Conceptual Metaphors: our resolve to defeat this virus; to get this whole country back to health, back on its' feet; logistical problems we have faced; everyone responsible for tackling these problems; are throwing everything at it; heart and soul, day and night to get it right; they are rising to a challenge; the tragedy that engulfed other parts of the world; massive collective effort to shield the NHS; we are past the peak of this disease were past the peak and we are on the downward slope; we are being guided by the science; as though we've been going through some huge alpine tunnel and we can now see the sunlight and the the pasture ahead of us; it is vital that we do not now lose control and run slap into a second and even bigger mountain; there was a rise up to a peak; that of course translates into the number of people; I expect there to be a bit of a plateau stage; the UK bounces back; create a second spike, a second wave of the of the disease; sums are going out of the door; I really pay tribute to Richie; we've got to calibrate our measures; unlock the economy gradually; big-picture question; a ticking cancer time bomb as a result of this crisis; non-emergency services for the NHS and public health are switched on; the kind of guiding star of your policy; it's definitely not a magic bullet; I want to wrap up this session; (34 units total) |
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Nicknames: - |
As one may observe, political discourse in Western countries surrounding the topic of the pandemic exhibits several idiosyncrasies. Firstly, it makes abundant use of epithets and conceptual metaphors (25 and 93 units respectively) that have particularly frequent recourse to notions of warfare, directional movement and geographical dimensions. Furthermore, both secondary and primary sources exhibit consistent reliance on force intensifiers (61 units) and frequently take advantage of vocabulary that enables manipulation of conversational space, with expansion (28 units) being presumably used either to retain plausible deniability when reporting on facts not yet fully corroborated by factual evidence, to presumably sustain air of courtesy in an exchange or to hold one up to question and scrutiny when one's claims are called into question. Contraction (24 units), on the other hand, is invoked to reinforce one's credibility and deflect doubt which may alert recipients emphatically to the significance of a point being made. Alternatively, it may be summoned to seize control over discussion and preclude dissent, further advancing one's goal of establishing credibility. As far as attitudinal markers are concerned, judgement calls (30 units) display the most consistent use in contrast to expressions of affect or appreciation (17 and 14 units respectively), though the two see their relatively fair share of field time as well. On an aggregate basis, these tropes seem to serve to transfuse the source's overall emotional state, be it anger or joy, suppress contrapositive feelings and diminish credibility of those who seek through their messaging to impose the latter, all of which also seems to happen in observance of norms of politeness intrinsic to English-based conversations. Euphemisms, similes and nicknames are rarely turned to account, which may be due to social demand for transparency in reporting the pandemic-related events, as well as an impetus for cordial interactions, the failure to abide by which may be considered populistic and ill-mannered, seeking to exploit people's distress and concern about the pandemic. Taken as a whole, these devices synergize to create an image defined by perceived impartiality, balanced approach to processing the current events, fact-based judgements as opposed to emotion-driven evaluations which occasionally incorporates in-group endorsement, all of which appear to resonate with the Western audience.
We now turn to China-based English-speaking sources which are presented by Global Times, China Daily newspapers, as well as spoken addresses by senior CCP officials.
China Daily - 24.04.2020 - White House must concentrate on fighting outbreak, not China-bashing
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The Chinese authorities (good, in-group), The US authorities (bad, out-group), the China Daily author as an intermediary (good, in-group).Actions: invective, refutation of culpability. |
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Script selection |
Affect - presumably anger, presumably surprise or disgust. |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: the US leader did make a new and shocking statement on April 17; A national leader floating such a conspiracy theory on live TV is again shocking and immoral; It is sad to see China-bashing becoming a regular part of the White House briefing; (3 units total) · Judgement: The White House press briefing...is supposed to be a time to inform and rally the American people; these are old lies; it is highly immoral for a national leader to wish there were more sick and dead people in another country; (3 units total) · Appreciation: the US leader did make a new and shocking statement on April 17; China's measures have been far more decisive, stringent and effective; A national leader floating such a conspiracy theory on live TV is again shocking and immoral; (3 units total) Engagement · Conv. space contraction: He said most cases and deaths have in the world have to be in China; But we all know that the numbers of cases and deaths are not necessarily proportional; Many scientists, governments and institutions, such as the World Health Organization, have made it clear that; That trust seems still high given that; (4 units total) · Conv. space expansion: For example, the US leader claimed on Tuesday that; The US goods and services trade deficit with China, according to US government data, was $381 billion in 2018; On Saturday, the US leader claimed that China is providing; Goldman Sachs and many US economists have said that; the cost of such tariffs has fallen "entirely" on US businesses; According to Chad Bown, a senior fellow at the Peterson Institute; the US leader said, "a lot of people are looking at it. It seems to make sense"; An NBC News-Wall Street Journal poll released on Sunday showed that; 52 percent of respondents in the US said they generally do not trust the president; (10 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): The briefing has increasingly become a campaign rally; regular China-bashing; China's measures have been far more decisive; it is highly immoral for a national leader to wish there were more sick and dead people in another country; while just 36 percent said they do; (5 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): The White House press briefing...is supposed to be a time to inform and rally the American people; (1 unit total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: - |
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Dysphemisms: For example, the US leader claimed on Tuesday that; (1 unit total) |
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Similes: - |
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Epithets: - |
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Conceptual Metaphors: regular China-bashing; the cost of such tariffs has fallen "entirely" on US businesses; A national leader floating such a conspiracy theory; (3 units total) |
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Nicknames: - |
Global Times - 03.05.2020 - US practice to claim compensation for COVID-19 outbreak a shame for human civilization
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The Chinese authorities (good, in-group), The US authorities (bad, out-group), the Global Times author as an intermediary (good, in-group).Actions: invective, refutation of culpability, forwarding of an opinion. |
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Script selection |
Affect - presumably anger, disgust. |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: · Judgement: lousy cliché of claiming compensation; Washington just had a U-turn; the US politicians blatantly violated the rules; they are forming cliques for blackmailing; not the crazy imagination by certain American politicians.; such groundless assumption; certain Americans who ignore facts and fabricate data; deviates from humanity.; The political manipulation...has no moral baseline; (10 units total) · Appreciation: The source of the virus is a serious scientific issue; China's all-out efforts; Blatantly trampling upon the sovereignty of other countries; damaging the international rule of law; countries seeking to politicize the Covid-19 pandemic are "playing with fire."; (5 units total) · Conv. space contraction: they shall never be tolerated for undermining international cooperation; The US side once said openly that it greatly appreciates China's efforts; Facts indicate that China's containment efforts do not have any causality with the outbreak in the US; The source of the virus is a serious scientific issue that can only be studied by scientists and medical experts; assumption…is not even agreed by authoritative infection control specialists; It is globally recognized that China has always responded to the epidemic… in an open...manner; The US politicians must give answers; (7 units total) · Conv. space expansion: Lea Brilmayer...called such practice "a last-ditch effort”; Keitner considered it a "total nightmare."; (2 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): The political farce staged again and again by the US; The US side once said openly that it greatly appreciates China's efforts; the US politicians blatantly violated the rules; Lea Brilmayer...called such practice "a last-ditch effort..”; However, some US politicians did not drop the idea at all; Keitner considered it a "total nightmare."; Blatantly trampling upon the sovereignty of other countries; (7 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): such groundless assumption; deviates from humanity.; (2 units total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: the sudden outbreak of an epidemic...is considered force majeure in legal context; "If you don't want many more body bags…”; (2 units total) |
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Dysphemisms: lousy cliché of claiming compensation; country that touts itself as an "international leader"; called the novel coronavirus "Chinese virus" and "Wuhan virus."; not the crazy imagination by certain American politicians.; (5 units total) |
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Similes: - |
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Epithets: lousy cliché of claiming compensation; (1 unit total) |
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Conceptual Metaphors: Some US politicians are making the COVID-19 pandemic a political show; The political farce staged again and again by the US; they shall never be tolerated for undermining international cooperation; Washington just had a U-turn; they are forming cliques for blackmailing; However, some US politicians did not drop the idea at all; Lea Brilmayer...called such practice "a last-ditch effort..”; such groundless assumption; assumption driven by politics; established a strong line of defense.; certain Americans who ignore facts and fabricate data; The political manipulation...has no moral baseline; countries seeking to politicize the Covid-19 pandemic are "playing with fire."; (13 units total) |
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Nicknames: |
Global Times - April the 25th - WHO should probe US's virus misconduct: Global Times Editorial
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The Chinese authorities (good, in-group), The US authorities (bad, out-group), the Global Times author as an intermediary (good, in-group).Actions: invective, forwarding of an opinion. |
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Script selection |
Affect - anger, presumably disgust |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: Since the situation is grave; (1 unit total) · Judgement: and history needs a true record instead of an impression distorted by politics; there was very serious confusion in the US at the early stage; The COVID-19 test in the US had been backward until the end of February; As for the US, its administration and the medical management department have obviously had serious misjudgment and incompetence.; the US had turned a blind eye to the situation.; the US apparently had a huge loophole in its understanding of the early COVID-19 situation; Its strategy has also shown surprising mistakes.; their serious failure in leading the COVID-19 fight; (10 units total) · Appreciation: and this may have a huge significance for people's re-understanding of the COVID-19.; This is worthy of discussion for all humanity.; the rift between Democrats and Republicans may lead to a serious distortion of the truth.; (3 units total) · Conv. space contraction: It is very likely that the woman who died on February 6 was still not the US' earliest COVID-19 death case.; and this may have a huge significance for people's re-understanding of the COVID-19.; A logical deduction is that the US' actual situation was much worse than that of Europe; Another logical deduction is that many COVID-19 cases were treated as patients of influenza; As for the US, its administration and the medical management department have obviously had serious misjudgment and incompetence.; the US apparently had a huge loophole in its understanding of the early COVID-19 situation; Obviously, the Trump administration does not want their anti-epidemic measures to be reviewed.; They worry that this will not only make people relive their serious failure in leading the COVID-19 fight; The entire Republican Party is defending the US government; (10 units total) · Conv. space expansion: A medical officer in Santa Clara said the three deaths are probably "the tip of an iceberg of unknown size."; The infection time of the woman was presumed to be from early January to mid-January; those cases may be easily mixed with influenza and other complications; According to estimates from Northeastern University, the COVID-19 had spread undetected for a long time; However, their disclosure may be affected because of political interests; the rift between Democrats and Republicans may lead to a serious distortion of the truth.; (6 units total) Graduation · Force (increase/decrease): This has greatly moved up the first death case in the US; the COVID-19 fight is far from over.; It is very likely that the woman who died on February 6 was still not the US' earliest COVID-19 death case.; A logical deduction is that the US' actual situation was much worse than that of Europe; there was very serious confusion in the US at the early stage; more and more US experts and media agree to this.; This is worthy of discussion for all humanity.; the US apparently had a huge loophole in its understanding of the early COVID-19 situation; The entire Republican Party is defending the US government; (9 units total) · Prototypicality (aligned/removed): and history needs a true record instead of an impression distorted by politics (2 units total) |
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Evaluative vocabulary |
Euphemisms: |
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Dysphemisms: As a typical Western democracy; (1 unit total) |
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Similes: - |
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Epithets: The COVID-19 test in the US had been backward; (1 unit total) |
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Conceptual Metaphors: A medical officer in Santa Clara said the three deaths are probably "the tip of an iceberg of unknown size."; the COVID-19 fight is far from over.; the US had turned a blind eye to the situation.; (2 units total) |
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Nicknames: |
Remarks by H.E. Xi Jinping - 26.03.2020 - Working Together to Defeat the COVID-19 Outbreak
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Scene +Axiological alignment |
Participants: The President of PRC (good, in-group), The G20's attendees (good/ambivalent, out-group)Actions: agenda setting, building rapport. |
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Script selection |
Affect - enjoyment, presumably interest |
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Script adjustment (appraisal) |
Attitude· Affect: begin by expressing my sincere appreciation; caught us all by surprise; the Chinese government and Chinese people have been undaunted; Such expressions of friendship…will be cherished by the Chinese people.; The situation is disturbing and unsettling; For China, we will be happy to join other countries and scale up support; we all will embrace a brighter future for mankind!; (7 units total) · Judgement: We have acted according to the overall principle of shoring up confidence; We have put up a strenuous struggle; This is a virus that respects no borders.; (3 units total) ... |
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