Conditional Sentences. Wishes and Regrets

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Kyrgyz Republic

Kyrgyz National University named after J.Balasagyn

Faculty of foreign languages

COURSE PAPER

Theme: Conditional Sentences. Wishes and Regrets.

Done by: Zhorobaeva A.A.

Group: LA-3-18(6)

Checked by: Sultanova M.A.



Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1. Theoretical part

1.1 What is a conditional?

1.2 The structure of conditional sentences

1.3 Conditional Connectives

Chapter 2. Practical part

2.1 Types of Conditional Sentences. Zero Conditionals

2.2 First Conditional: real possibility

2.3 Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

2.4 Third Conditional: no possibility

2.5 Mixed Conditionals

2.6 Wishes & Regrets

2.7 Conditional Clauses in the Novel “The Catcher in the Rye”

Conclusion

Bibliography



Introduction

There are a number of structures in English that are called conditionals which are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations. A “Condition” is a “situation or circumstance”. Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Of all basic grammatical points, English conditional structure is an important tone which should be put into special consideration. English conditional structure plays an important part in English Grammar and mastering it contributes greatly to the students` English performance. English conditionals require coordination of verb forms in both the Ї if Їand the result clauses and the fact that verb forms often do not retain their normal temporal meaning makes it even more complex. Although the various conditional forms might seem quite abstract at first, they are actually some of the most useful structures in English and are commonly included in daily conversations.

The goal of this paper is to determine conditionals' role in the story “The Catcher In The Rye” by J.D. Salinger.

The aims of this work constitute the following:

· To reveal the main peculiarities of the conditional clauses.

· To find out the role of Conditional Sentences in English grammar.

· To learn how to express wishes and regrets in specific situations.

· To explore the selected examples with conditionals according to their use and meanings in the story “The Catcher In The Rye”



Chapter 1. Theoretical part

english grammar conditional clause

1.1 What is a conditional?

Conditional sentences are sentences that describe implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. In grammar, conditional sentences refer to the discussion of factual implications or imaginary or hypothetical situations and their results. They express something that must happen or be true if another thing is to happen or be true. Conditional sentences consist of two main clauses - a main (conditional) clause containing a verb in a form with will or would, and a subordinate clause that is introduced by “if”. The order of the wo clauses can appear interchangeably. When the if-clause leads the sentence, normally a comma is used. However, when the conditional sentence takes the lead, no comma is found after it. In certain cases, the way we use this comma in conditional sentences lies `partly on their length and partly on personal preference' (Parrott, 2000, p. 231).

Syntactically the condition is the subordinate clause, and the consequence is the main clause. However, the properties of the entire sentence are primarily determined by the properties of the protasis (condition) (it tense and degree off actualness). Conditional sentences play an important role in grammar. They describe a condition and the result that follows. There has been an extensive interest in conditional structures that indicates the importance of this construction. Many philosophers, linguists and grammarians proposed numerous typologies, like Comrie on semantic distinctions; Sweetser on the conceptual domains, and Kitis on verb morphology and tense sequencing. He discussed the rhetorical function of some conditional structures that can have a concessive or even antithetical (contrastive) force.



1.2 Structure of Conditional Sentences

The structure of conditional sentences is straightforward. There are some two basic possibilities in terms of order in the sentence. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this:

Table 1

If	Condition	Result
If	you wait until tomorrow,	you'll be late

or like this:

Table 2

Result	If	Condition
You'll be late	if	you wait until tomorrow

Notice that we only use comma in the first example. (A comma is always correct in this case, but not always essential if the sentence is short.) In the second sentence we do not normally use a comma.

People sometimes call conditionals "if structures" or "if sentences" because there is usually (but not always) the word if in a conditional sentence. If is a conjuction - some of the shortest words in the English language, but they do some of the heaviest lifting.

Conditional cojunctions are the main component in building conditional sentences. They're found in sentences where one clause describes something that happened or will happen - if the condition of the other clause is satisfied. Conditional conjunctions can be a single word like if, or several words. In this paper we will call them Conditional Connectives.



1.2 Conditional Connectives

A large majority of conditional sentences are introduced by the subordinating conjunction If. However, there are also many other conditional connectives, e.g., even if, unless, in case, assuming/supposing, as long as, after, as a consequence of, as a result of, as soon as, because, before, but for, if only, once, only if, providing/provided, since, therefore, until, when, whenever, wherever, whether, yet, on the condition that, etc. Table 1 shows the distribution of conditional sentences with some main conditional connectives. various connectives (Sentiment Analysis of Conditional Sentences, 2009, p.182).

Table 3 Percentage of sentences with various connectives

Conditional Connective	% of sentences
If	6.42
Unless	0.32
Even if	0.17
Until	0.10
As (so) long as	0.09
Assuming/supposing	0.04
In case	0.04
Only if	0.03

Detailed linguistic discussions of them are beyond the scope of this paper. Below, we briefly discuss some important ones and their interpretations.

· If: This is the most commonly used conditional connective. In addition to its own usage, it can also be used to replace other conditional connectives, except some semantically richer connectives (Declerck and Reed, 2001). Most (but not all) conditional sentences can be logically expressed in the form `If P then Q', where P is the condition clause and Q is the consequent clause. For practical purposes, we can automatically segment the condition and consequent clauses using simple rules generated by observing grammatical and linguistic patterns.

· Unless: Most conditional sentences containing unless can be replaced with equivalent sentences with an if and a not. For example, the sentence Unless you need clarity, buy the cheaper model can be expressed with If you don't need clarity, buy the cheaper model.

· Even if: Linguistic theories claim that even if is a special case of a conditional which may not always imply an if-then relationship (Gauker 2005). However, in the datasets before, there was observed that the usage of even if almost always translates into a conditional. Replacing even if by if will yield a sentence that is semantically similar enough for the purpose of sentiment analysis.

· Only if, provided/providing that, on condition that: Conditionals involving these phrases typically express a necessary condition, e.g., I will buy this camera only if they can reduce the price. In such sentences, only usually does not affect whether the sentence is opinionated or not.

· In case: Conditional sentences containing in case usually describe a precaution: I will close the window in case it rains, prevention: I wore sunglasses in case I was recognized, or a relevance conditional: In case you need a car, you can rent one. Identifying the conditional and consequent clauses is not straightforward in many cases. Further, in these instances, replacing in case with if may not convey the intended meaning of the conditional. We will not deep in these cases, they need a separate study, and also such sentences are rare.

· As (so) long as: Sentences with these connectives behave similarly to if and can usually be replaced with if.

· Assuming/Supposing: These are a category of conditionals that behave quite differently. The participles supposing and assuming create conditional sentences where the conditional clause and the consequent clause can be syntactically independent. It is quite difficult to distinguish those conditional sentences which contain an explicit consequent clause and fit within our analysis framework. In the data, most of such sentences have no consequent, thus representing assumptions rather than opinions. These sentences are omitted in the study (they are also rare).

Examples for other conjunctions:

1. I can pass after the green light is on.

2. Although she speaks seldom, she says meaningful words.

3. I went to bed at 10 pm as I had a plane to catch at 7 am.

4. She talks as if he was rich.

5. You can go as long as you are good.

6. I hate broccoli as much as I hate cauliflower.

7. As soon as I went to home, I started to work.

8. It seems as though she is in trouble.

9. She usually eats at home, because she likes cooking.

10. My work must be finished before afternoon.

11. He works every day, even on Sundays.

12. You will go to that cinema even if they don't allow you.

13. Even though it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday.

14. Since I was ill for two months, I lost my job.

15. She was too late so that she could not apply for the job.

16. Supposing you had a dog, what would you do with it?

17. I will tell you the details when I come home.

18. Though it is raining, they swam in the pool.



Chapter 2. Practical part

2.1 Types of Conditional Sentences. Zero Conditionals

There are four basic conditionals that we use in English:

1. Zero Conditional

This conditional form is used to describe universal statements like facts, rules and certainties. In a zero conditional, both the condition and consequent clauses are in the simple present tense. In other words, the Zero Conditional is used for things that are always true as long as the condition is met. An example of such sentences is: If you catch a snowflake, it melts in your hands. Since all the verbs are in present tense, Zero Conditional is easy to form You just use two clauses, one with If + simple present verb and the other with another simple present verb:

Table 4

If	Condition	Result	Situation
	present simple	present simple
If	you heat the water,	it boils	Fact - universal
If	I don't sleep 8 hours,	I get a headache	Fact - personal

Also, this form can also be used for giving instructions about what to do under certain conditions. For example,

1. If I'm late for dinner, start eating without me.

2. Don't make any changes if the instructor doesn't order to.

3. When you go on vocation, learn some of the language.

2.2 First Conditional: real possibility

Table 5

If	Condition	Result	Possibility
If	she studies hard,	she will get good grades.	If the condition is met, then she definitely will get
If	he gets good grades,	he may go to university.	He is not sure about going to university
If	you feel bad,	you should see a doctor.	The speaker is expressing his opinion, giving advice
If	you go to some courses,	you can catch up with others easily.	This means that it is possible
If	she lives in London,	we could meet once.	This means that it is possible, but not that likely
If	I have time,	I might have a sleep.	This means that it is possible, but not that likely

Conditional sentences of this type are also called potential or indicative conditionals. They are used to express a hypothetical situation that is probably true, but the truth of which is unverified. In the first conditional, the condition is in the simple present tense, and the consequent can be either in past tense or present tense, usually with a modal auxiliary verb preceding the main verb.

The sentences are connecting two future actions, where one must take place before the second is possible. We are talking about future, but use a present tense for the condition and will for the result.

We can also use different present forms in the condition part of the sentence:

Table 6

If	Condition	Reason for tense	Result
	Present simple	an action in the future
If	I see her,		I'll ask her about it.
	Present progressive	An unfinished present action
If	they are still working,		I'll go home.
	Present progressive	A future arrangement
If	they are going,		I'll stay at home.
	Present perfect	A finished action related to now
If	you have finished your meal,		I'll clear away the plates.
	WILL + base verb	Making an arrangement	WILL + base verb
If	you will work late today,		I will let you have Friday off.
	WIL + base verb	Expressing displeasure because someone insists on doing something	WILL + base verb
If	you will drive too fast,		The police will stop you



2.3 Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

This is usually used to describe less probable situations, for stating preferences and imaginary events. The condition clause of a second conditional sentence is in the past subjunctive (past tense), and the consequent clause contains a conditional verb modifier, in addition to the main verb, e.g., If the cell phone was robust, I would consider buying it.

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IF + past simple (condition) + WOULD + base verb (result)

Table 7

If	Condition	Time	Result	Possibility
	Past simple	Present	WOULD + base verb	Impossible
If	I had the time,		I would learn Italian.	I don't have the time, so I'm not going to learn Italian
	Past simple	Future	WOULD + base verb	unlikely
If	I won the lottery,		I would travel around the world.	There's a very small chance of winning the lottery, so the tri is unlikely

We can use other modal verbs in the past tense in the result part of the sentence.

Examples: 1. If I had the time, I would learn Italian.

2. If I had more time, I might learn Spanish.

3. If I had more time, I should learn some more about IT.

4. If I had more time, I could learn Chinese.

· In the first sentence although unlikely to happen, I am sure that I would do it given the opportunity.

· The second example tells that although unlikely to happen, it is only a possibility anyway.

· `I should learn' means that although unlikely to happen, it would be a good idea, but I'm not committed to it.

· `I could learn' - although unlikely to happen, it is only a possibility anyway.

`Could' and `might' are very close in meaning, as we already had some more examples before.

What is the difference between using `could' and `might' in conditional sentences?

`Might' seems to suggest little information from the situation.

`Could' seems to suggest that there are signs of the action ( there are clues).

Consider: He might not arrive = means that he might arrive, but we are starting to think he may not, while

He could not arrive = suggests that, because of some obstacle, he was not able to do it.

2.4 Third Conditional: no possibility

This is usually used to describe contrary-to-fact (impossible) past events. The past perfect tense is used in the condition clause, and the consequent clause is in the present perfect tense, e.g., If I had bought that furniture, I would have hated it.

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IF + Past Perfect (condition) + WOULD HAVE + Past Participle (result)

Using modal verbs instead of `would have':

1. If I had known about the situation, I could have helped in time. = Although this did not happen, the result is only a possibility. (I was able to do it)

2. If I had known about the situation, I might have helped. = Although this did not happen, the result is only a possibility. (I might do it, but also I might not)

3. If you had known, you should have helped. = Although this did not happen, it is only a good suggestion or piece of advice.

Besides this four types of conditional we can meet with another type of expressing conditions, where there are two types of conditionals in one sentence. We call it mixed conditional.

2.5 Mixed Conditional

When we talk about mixed conditionals, we are referring to conditional sentences that combine two different types of conditional patterns. These combination are not all that frequent, but the most common combination is when we have a type 3 conditional in the if-clause (if + past perfect) followed by a type 2 conditional (would + infinitive) in the main clause. With this combination we are contrasting an imagined or real event in the past with the present result of that. Consider these examples:

Example 1. If he'd taken the medication as prescribed, he wouldn't get antibiotic resistance.

Example 2. If she'd obeyed mother's prohibition, she wouldn't be lying sick in bed now.

Note that we can also convey the same idea of past event and present result by using type 3 conditional (if + past perfect, would have + past participle) in both clauses:

Example: If he'd taken the medication as the doctor ordered, he would've recovered by now.

We use this type of conditional when we regret past action or inaction.

Mixed second/ third conditional

The other possibility, though this s less common, is when there is a type 2 conditional in the if-clause (if + past simple) followed by a type 3 conditional (would have + past participle) in the main clause.

With this combination, we are describing ongoing circumstances in relation to a previous past event. Consider these examples:

Example 1. If you weren't such a poor dancer, you would've got a job in the chorus line in that musical.

Example 2. If you weren't so blind to his faults, you would've realized that he was out to swindle you.

Table 9

If-clause	Main clause
If + past perfect or simple past	Present conditional + Perfect conditional
If I had worked harder at school	I would get better grades now.
If Marina had seen me at the party,	she would definitely speak to me.
If you weren't afraid of insects,	you would have picked this spider up and put it outside.

2.6 Wishes & Regrets

When we express wishes and regrets we say things that aren't true. This is a way to say how things would be nice if they were different. We can wish for something to be different than it is (or was) or wish for something new or different to happen in the future. Our wishes for the present are for things that are unlikely or impossible. Our wishes for the past are always impossible, because the past cannot be changed. Because of this, wishes and regrets are called the unreal mood.

Wishes about the present and future

We cannot use a present tense verb with 'I wish'. Wishes for the present / future use a past tense verb or a modal verb with an infinitive. When we make a wish, we change the form of the verb that we are using from positive to negative, or vice versa.

Example:

I am poor. I don't like this and I want to be rich. To express this as a wish we can say: "I wish I wasn't poor." or we can change the adjective and say: "I wish I was rich."

Wishes about states

If we make a wish wish about possessions or to change a state, we use 'wish' and the original verb in a past form. Look at the examples below:

I wish I wasn't here. (I am here! A wish relating to a state, not an action)

I wish I knew what to do. (I don't know what to do)

I wish I had her phone number. (I don't have her number! A wish about possession, not an action)

I wish I lived in America! (I don't live there)

If our wishes relate to actions that are performed by other people, we use wish with 'would' and a verb infinitive. If the wish is for an action that we wish for ourselves, we use 'could' instead of 'would'. If we wish for opportunity, ability, capability or permission, we use 'could' and a verb infinitive.

Typical wishes - relating to actions:

o I wish he would stop talking. (He never stops talking).

o I wish it would stop raining. (It is raining and it won't stop).

o I wish he wouldn't leave his clothes on the floor. (He does leave his clothes on the floor)

o I wish I could swim. (I can't swim. A wish relating to ability)

o I wish I could remember her name. (I can't remember).

o I wish I didn't have to go to work today. (I must work. A wish relating to permission/ability etc)

Wishes about the past:

We all make mistakes. We all have regrets. Things happen that are not perfect. We often talk about these things and wish for things to be different. When we speak about things that DID NOT happen in the past, but which we wish were true, we use this form: I wish + subject + had + verb past participle.

Consider these ideas:

o I went to University in Oxford, but now I regret it. Cambridge is a better University. We can say: "I wish I had gone to Cambridge University."

o Manchester United lost to Barcelona in the Champions League. I wanted Manchester to win. We can say: "I wish Manchester had beaten Barcelona."

If we wish about past possessions or past ability/capability/permission/opportunity etc, we use this form: 'I wish' with 'subject' + could + have + past participle (present perfect)'.

Consider these ideas:

o I didn't go to the cinema with you because I was working. I was unable to go. We can say: "I wish I could have gone to the cinema with you."

o I wanted to live in America when I was a boy, but my parents chose to live in the UK. We can say: "I wish I could have lived in America." ('I wish I had lived in the USA' is also correct, but gives less information.)

Sometimes, the same wish can be expressed both ways, depending on the reasons:

For example:

1."I wish I had gone to Cambridge University." (I decided to go to Oxford) or "I wish I could have gone to Cambridge University." (They refused to accept me, so I was unable)

2."I wish I had gone to the cinema with you last night." (It was a mistake, which I regret.) or "I wish I could have gone to the cinema with you last night." (I was working so I was unable to go.)

When we speak about states or things that DID happen in the past, but which we wish were not true, we use this form: 'I wish' with 'subject + had + not + verb past participle (negative past perfect)'.

For example:

1. I wish I hadn't gone to Oxford University."

2. I wish Manchester hadn't lost to Barcelona.

3. I wish I hadn't forgotten to write to her.

Remember: We do not use 'could' with this negative form.

Using given structures we can express regrets, fantasies, disappointment, relief, criticism, complaints. Besides `I wish' there are another wish expressions like:

Ш I'd prefer it if = I'd prefer it if they had supplied us with equipment.

Ш Imagine if = Imagine if we all lived in Mars!

Ш It's time = It's time they stopped arguing.

Ш I'd rather = I'd rather you went.

Ш What if = What if you could read people's minds?

Ш If only = If only she had called me sooner.

The last example reminds us of the Unreal Conditional sentences (Second Conditionals). If we add a result clause to this sentence we will have:

If only she had called me sooner, I would have been able to help.

In conditional sentence we can keep the word only or we can take it out if we preferred. But(!), without result clause we need to keep only to express a wish or regret:

If she had called me sooner, I would have been able to help. - Second Conditional

If only she had called me sooner! - Wish&Regret

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES IN THE NOVEL “THE CATCHER IN THE RYE” BY J.D. SALINGER

Despite much debate, the standard analysis of conditional meaning still remains one which parallels unidirectional logical implication, sufficient but not necessary conditionality in the logical world. However, various analysts have brought up ways in which the interpretation of conditional structures is not strictly unidirectional. Geis and Zwicky have remarked that the actual interpretation of many conditional sentences is a doubled one interpretation.

I decided to find different interpretation and variety in the story “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger, which was chosen to develop the investigation of this course paper, through its large spectrum of conditional sentences that prove a high range of creativity and knowledge possessed by the author.

The analysis of the basic types of conditionals

Conditional sentences are expressing factual implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. They are so called because the validity of the main clause of the sentence is conditional on the existence of certain circumstances, which may be expressed in a dependent clause or may be understood from the context. All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an independent clause. The dependent clause usually begins with if; it express-es a condition. The independent clause expresses a result of the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have basically the same meaning. The main clause can be at the end, or at the beginning of the sentence. It is not used a comma in this case.

If he ever gets married, his own wife'll probably call him “Ackley”. [p.11]

His own wife'll probably call him “Ackley” if he ever gets married.

According to many grammarians there are different classifications of conditional sentences. One distinction is between those that are considered basic in English - 0, 1st, 2nd, 3rd types, and those that denote an unusual mix of tenses - mixed conditionals.

a) Conditional Sentences type 1

During the research there have been few examples for this type of conditional sentences. Nevertheless, we find such sentences like:

If you get on the side…, I'll admit that. [p.6]

We see no peculiarities in the way author used the real conditional.

If you get on the side, = If-clause + infinitive

I'll admit that. = Result clause or main clause with `will'

b) Conditional Sentence type 2

Example: …if I felt any better, I'd have to send for the doctor… [p.5]

If I felt any better, = If-clause + past simple

I'd have to send for the doctor. = WOULD + base verb

c) Conditional Sentence type 3

This type of conditional sentences is widely used throughout the story. The reason of it may be the fact that the story is told by the first person - the main character. Since he is a teenager, it's easy to observe his spoilt and light-minded feature of his character. He often likes to dream of something unreal. Yet, he thinks over some critical situations and can come to pretty reasonable conclusions. Therefore, all this positions will be clearly described if author uses Unreal Conditional Sentences.

Example 1. I wouldn't've read it out loud to him if he'd written it, I really wouldn't. [p.8]

Example 2. I told him how I would've done exactly the same thing if I'd been in his place. [p.8]

Example 3. I'd have done much about it even if I had known. [p. 49]

The last example is build with the following structure:

IF + Past Perfect (condition) + WOULD HAVE + Past Participle (result)

And in the first two sentences the if-clause and the result clause are changed by place:

WOULD HAVE + Past Participle (result) + IF + Past Perfect (condition)

Conditionals with other conjunctions

· As soon as old Maurice opened the doors, he'd see me with the automatic in my hand… [p. 57]

· Supposing I went to your father…, what would he do to me? [p.80]

· He didn't talk to you at all hardly unless you were a big shot or a celebrity. [ p.77 ]

· … you could call him up on the phone whenever you felt like it. [p.11]

· And even if I could, I'm not sure I'd feel like it. [ p. 66]

Such conditional connectives like assuming, only if, on the condition that, as long as are not used at all. Thus, we could prove the veracity of the information given in Table 1 ( Chapter 1, Conditional Connectives).



Conclusion

In conclusion I can say that Conditional Sentences in English are not a small part of grammatic but, in contrary, it is one the widest structures. I found out very much new details about conditionals that could have remained undiscovered if I hadn't done this research. Below I note briefly about the main points.

1. Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If-Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if ) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if ) is fulfilled.

2. Conditional sentences play an important role in grammar. They describe a condition and the result that follows.

3. For the purposes of studying, conditional sentences are usually divided into three main types:

a) structures with real condition (first type of conditional sentences, or first conditional);

b) structures with unreal condition referring to the present or future (second type of conditional sentences, or second conditional);

c) structures with unreal condition referring to the past (third type of conditional sentences, or third conditional)

4. Different conditional conjunctions are used either often or rarely.

5. If is not only a conditional conjunction.

6. We cannot use a present tense verb with 'I wish'. Wishes for the present / future use a past tense verb or a modal verb with an infinitive. When we make a wish, we change the form of the verb that we are using from positive to negative, or vice versa.

7. Wishes & Regrets and Unreal Conditionals aren't the same, although the structure seems alike.

8. There can be different interpretation and variety in the story “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger

9. J.D. Salinger used more Unreal Conditionals (Conditional Sentences type 3) and less Zero Conditionals and the First Conwitionals.



Bibliography

1. Sentiment Analysis of Conditional Sentences. Ramanathan Narayan, Bing Liu, Alok Choudhary. Northwestern University. Univ. of Illinois at Chicago, 2009

2. Oxford Practice Grammar. Advanced. George Yule. 2008

3. The Catcher in the Rye. J.D. Salinger. 1951

4. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge University press. Second edition.

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9. www.ukessays.com

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11. www.ell.stackexchange.com

12. https://youtu.be/mYL4IwzUlCY

13. https://www.insegnanti-inglese.com/

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