Diachronic and synchronic analysis of lexicographic processes of minority languages in Scotland: a contrastive approach

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DIACHRONIC AND SYNCHRONIC ANALYSIS OF LEXICOGRAPHIC PROCESSES OF MINORITY LANGUAGES IN SCOTLAND: A CONTRASTIVE APPROACH

Viktoriia V. Lemeshchenko-Lagoda

Dmytro Motornyi Tavria State Agrotechnological University, Melitopol, Ukraine



Abstract

The paper offers a diachronic and synchronic analysis of the lexicographic processes of the minority languages in Scotland - Scottish Gaelic and Scots. For the first time, three periods (period of glossaries, historical period, modern “educational” period) of the Scottish Gaelic lexicography, and four periods (period of glossaries, pre-scientific period and dialectological period, historical period and scientific period) of еру Scots lexicography were outlined. The author discusses the diachronic and synchronic analysis of lexicographic sources, singles out common and divergent features of both lexicographic processes development, as well as the basic principles and approaches to compiling dictionaries.

For the Scottish-Gaelic lexicography, it is absolutely untypical to compile dictionaries of dialectal words; to interpret the Gaelic language as a dialect of Irish, in contrast to the Scots, which for a long period of its development was perceived as a dialect of English, which prompted the lexicographers to compile dictionaries of dialectal vocabulary.

A significant advantage of Scottish Gaelic dictionaries lies in the fact that English-Gaelic dictionaries appeared decades earlier in comparison with similar editions in the Scots language.

Despite the fact that Scottish Gaelic is the official language of Scotland, Scottish Gaelic lexicography, compared to the Scots one, is significantly inferior both in the number of published dictionaries and in the quality of their content (macro- and microstructure).

Both lexicographic processes are characterized by the lack of monolingual dictionaries. All publications are bilingual (translated into English, or from English, rarely in other languages).

Keywords: minority languages, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, lexicography, lexicographic process, diachronic analysis, synchronic analysis.



Анотація

scottish gaelic lexicography diachronic

У статті виконано діахронічний та синхронічний аналіз лексикографічних процесів міноритарних мов Шотландії - шотландсько-гельської та шотландської мови Скотс. Вперше окреслено три періоди (період глосарізації, історичний період, сучасний “навчальний” період) розвитку шотландсько-гельської лексикографії та чотири періоди (донауковий період, діалектологічний період, історичний період та науковий період) лексикографії мови Скотс. У процесі діахронічного та синхронічного аналізу лексикографічних джерел було виявлено головні особливості та відмінності розвитку обох лексикографічних процесів, обгрунтовано основні принципи та підходи до укладання словників.

Для шотландсько-гельської лексикографії абсолютно не властивим є укладання словників діалектизмів, й у свою чергу трактування гельської мови як діалекту ірландської, на відміну від шотландської мови Скотс, яка досить довгий період свого розвитку сприймалась як діалект англійської, що й спонукало лексикографів до написання словників діалектної лексики.

Значною перевагою шотландсько-гельських словників є той факт, що англо-гельські словники з'явились на десятки років раніше за аналогічні видання мовою Скотс. Це пояснюється тим, що гельська мова не перебуває у такій близькій спорідненості з англійською, як Скотс.

Незважаючи на те, що шотландсько-гельська мова є офіційною мовою Шотландії, у порівнянні з лексикографією мови Скотс, вона значно поступається як за кількістю виданих словників, так і за якістю їх наповнення (макро- та мікроструктури).

Головною спільною рисою обох лексикографічних процесів є відсутність одномовних словників. Усі видання є двомовними перекладними (переклад здійснюється англійською мовою, або з англійської мови, рідше іншими мовами).

Ключові слова: міноритарні мови, шотландсько-гельська мова, шотландська мова Скотс, лексикографія, лексикографічний процес, діахронічний аналіз, синхронічний аналіз.



Introduction

The revival and preservation of minority languages has become the subject of increasing attention and concern of both foreign (Y. Bollmann, R. Castro, D. Crystal, F. Fellman, J. Harbeck, V. Makashova, R. Nuwer, J. Yamisha, V. Zhuhan) and Ukrainian linguists (A. Dochu, S. Kot, O. Mykhalchuk, V. Ponomarenko, V. Radchuk, N. Sedneva, V. Vasylenko, L. Vasylyk, G. Yankovska, G. Zaliznyak). It is estimated that of the world's 8,000 languages, only half will survive the next century. Less optimistic views suggest that this number will be twice as small. The loss of at least one language indicates not only a reduction in the world's linguistic heritage, but also a loss of cultural and intellectual diversity.

A crucial role in the preservation of minority languages can be played by a wellthought-out language policy aimed at active use of minority languages in all spheres of life (Y. Bollmann, D. Crystal, H. Lewis, O. Rosch, E. Royles. O. Taranenko), especially taking into account the fact of their coexistence in the same geographical area with the major language.

Regardless of geographical, economic or political conditions, dictionaries serve an important tool for describing, promoting and protecting languages. In addition, they play an even more important role in the preservation of endangered or minority languages, for they assist in preserving what is left of rapidly disappearing languages and cultures by capturing valuable information that otherwise would be lost. Identifying lexical units specific to a particular language, dictionaries help to distinguish it from genetically related languages. In addition, within the dictionary tradition, the modernization of the minority language can also be carried out, i.e. the development of vocabulary layers needed to expand the scope of its use. In this case, the dictionary determines the spelling of the language and often its orthoepic features, as well as grammatical rules. Importantly, in many cases a dictionary contributes to the language revival and changes the speakers' attitude towards it, encouraging its active utilization.



The need to elaborate upon this issue in modern Scotland, where three languages interact - the Scottish English, Scots and Scottish Gaelic, is discussed by foreign linguists (R. Crawford, J. Considine, M. G. Dareau, Ch. Jones, I. Macleod, C. Mark, A.L.K. Nihtinen, L. Pike, S. Pons-Sanz, Ch. Robinson), in particular Scottish ones (A. J. Aitken, A. MacCoinnich, I. Macleod, R. O. Madalalaigh, J. Mcclure, W. McLeod, S. Rennie). Although Scots and Scottish Gaelic were recognized as regional minority languages after British ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 1992, and Scottish Gaelic was given status of second official language of Scotland in 2005, both languages require a number of measures for the preservation and further development, among which the study of existing and compilation of new dictionaries is one of the priority areas.

So far, the lexicographic tradition has been thoroughly understood and individual dictionaries that record the lexical structure of the Scots language have been analyzed. In particular, there are several studies of the Scots lexicography historical development in the XVIII-XIX centuries. The vast majority of researchers (M. G. Dareau, Ch. Jones, I. Macleod, J. Mcclure, S. Rennie, Ch. Robinson, M. Robinson) focused their attention on detailing and reproducing the history of dictionary writing and compilation of this period, the most prominent Scottish lexicographers of this time (A. J. Aitken, R. Crawford, J. Considine, S. Rennie).

However, Scottish-Gaelic lexicography has not been the subject of special comprehensive research from both diachronic and synchronic perspectives so far. Moreover, compared to Scots, there is much less research on the Scottish-Gaelic lexicographic processes, although interest in studying this topic is growing, which can be traced in reference to some scientific research in recent years (A. MacCoinnich, W. McLeod, R. O. Madalalaigh, C. Mark, A.L.K. Nihtinen, L. Pike, S. Pons-Sanz).



Aim and Objectives

The paper aims to identify common and different features as the results of diachronic and synchronic analysis of the Scottish Gaelic and Scots lexicographic processes.

The main objectives are as follows:

- to identify the features of the Scottish lexicography development from the twelfth century to our time and define the main periods and trends of its development;

- to substantiate the basic principles of compiling dictionaries in Scottish Gaelic and Scots;

- to characterize the available approaches to the language material presentation at the macro- and microstructure level;

- to carry out a comparative analysis of the lexicographic processes in Scottish Gaelic and Scots in order to identify common and divergent features.

Methodology.

In the paper such general and special linguistic research methods: general methods of analysis and synthesis of information; descriptive method of lexicographic analysis for analysis of dictionary macro- and microstructure; comparative-diachronic method for the purpose of comparative-historical analysis of the formation process of Scottish lexicography at different stages of its formation; methods of dictionary criticism and comparative interpretation to identify their common and divergent features were used.

Periodization of Scottish Gaelic lexicography

Traditionally, the beginning of Scottish Gaelic lexicography has been associated with the scientific and translation work of the Rev. Robert Kirk, whose short glossary was published in 1702 and contained a small list of Gaelic words translated into English. During the same period, the Edward Lhuyd's fieldwork on collecting ethnographic material took place. He studied and recorded a large number of dialects that were widely used in Argyll and Inverness-shire. However, for more than three centuries, Scottish Gaelic lexicography has not acquired such a wide variety of vocabulary genres as Scots lexicography. In particular, taking into account the relatively small number of dictionaries that were published during this period (about 30), and the significant preservation or imitation of techniques and methods of fixing and transmitting lexical items in dictionary entries over the centuries, it is difficult to establish a clear periodization of Scottish Gaelic lexicography. Approximately three periods of its development can be outlined:

- period of glossaries (XVIII century);

- historical period (XIX-XX centuries);

- modern `educational' period - (XXI century).

The first period of development of Scottish Gaelic lexicography -- the period of glossaries.

As noted above, the first Scottish Gaelic glossary was compiled in 1702 by the Rev. Robert Kirk as a supplement to William Nicolson's Scottish Historical Library. As the author himself calls it, this glossary is much more like a list of words in the Irish dialect spoken by the Highlanders of Scotland. The glossary consisted of a small number of words to explain to Scottish readers some words of Irish origin in Bedel's translation of the Bible. In 1707, Edward Lhuyd's Arch^ologia Britannica was published. The book contains a grammar of the Iberno-Scottish Gaelic language and a small dictionary of the most commonly used words, which accurately conveys the state of the language development at that time.

In 1741, the first attempt to compile a complete dictionary of the Scottish Gaelic language was made by Alexander M'Donald. Words in a glossary are organized around a specific topic, not alphabetically. The first theme is the theme of God and Christianity. It is worth noting that at that time it was the first lexicographical work that covered a fairly broad topic. However, the publishers of this edition were forced to warn readers about certain shortcomings, such as “all or most of the verbs in this vocabulary, from page 143 to page 162, are expressed in the Gaelic by single words, though our author generally expresses them by a needless circumlocution”.

The first dictionary in the modern sense was published by the Rev. William Shaw in 1780. The dictionary was published in two volumes: “Galic and English Dictionary” (15,000 words) and “English and Galic Dictionary” (12,000 words), and contained in alphabetical order most of the words of the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Celtic language, which could be collected from ancient books. However, the dictionary almost immediately received a number of criticisms from native speakers. “As the critics of the publication appropriately point out, Shaw could not distinguish the words of the Scottish Gaelic language from the Old Irish language. Despite all the shortcomings, Shaw's work gave a significant impetus to the compilation of correct and accurate dictionaries in Scottish Gaelic”.

The last eighteenth-century dictionary of the language was a counterpart to Shaw's, the Gaelic-English Nuadhfhoclair Gaidhlig agus Bearla / New Alphabetical Vocabulary, Gallic and English of Robert Macfarlan (Raibeard Mac Pharlain), published in 1795. In fact, its wordlist has so much in common with Shaw's as to suggest that the New Alphabetical Vocabulary is basically a revision of the Galic and English Dictionary, though apparently the Irish forms were removed, and many spellings and definitions were tweaked (Considene, 2017, URL: https://ebrary.net/116354/language_literature/nineteenth_century). The dictionary contains just under ten thousand Gaelic words. In addition to Shaw's dictionary, R. Macfarlan supplemented his edition with `Rules for reading the Gailic language' which was an unacknowledged reworking of James Stuart's `Rules for reading the Galic language' of 1767.

The analysis of the listed dictionaries made it possible to identify the characteristics of this period:

- all dictionaries were mostly small and bilingual (Gaelic-English);

- there were several options for writing register words;

- vocabulary material is presented in two columns (the first - in Scottish Gaelic, and next - translation into English, or vice versa);

- dictionaries do not contain additional grammatical commentary to register words (do not indicate part-of-speech affiliation, grammatical categories, etc.);

- there is no explanation of incomprehensible words.

Thus, the duration of the period of glossary of the Scottish Gaelic language is completely limited to the XVIII century.

Historical period of development of Scottish Gaelic lexicography

Taking into account the imperfection of dictionaries of the previous period, in the early XIX century there was an urgent need for qualitatively new publications capable of revealing the fullness of the Scottish-Gaelic language picture of the world. Robert Armstrong's Gaelic Dictionary (1825), “Dictionarium Scoto-Celticum” by Highland Society (1828) and `Gaelic' by Rev. Dr. Macleod and D. Dewar (1830) laid the foundations of Scottish Gaelic lexicography and marked the beginning of a new period in the development of Scottish Gaelic lexicography, which, in our opinion, can be called historical.

Robert Armstrong's Gaelic Dictionary (1825) was published in two parts, Gaelic- English and Anglo-Gaelic. Gaelic was not a native language for R. Armstrong, and he had to make considerable efforts to master it. “In addition, other prominent Celtic scholars of the time worked on this publication, including the famous linguist Mr Ewen Maclachlan Even McLachlan, the Rev. Dr. M'Leod of Dundonald, the Rev. Dr. Irvine of Little Dunkeld, and the Rev. Dr. Mackay. As a result of their work, a brief grammatical commentary on each lexical item appeared in the Gaelic dictionary for the first time, and an explanation was added to those lexical items that did not have English equivalents”.

Three years later, in 1828, the Highland Society Dictionary was published under the title Dictionarium Scoto-Celticum. The papers of this dictionary were based on the previous experience of R. Armstrong, but were significantly supplemented with examples from the literature, that were aimed to help readers determine the area and features of word use in certain contexts.

In 1830, the octave dictionary of the Rev. Dr. MacLeod of Glasgow and the Rev. D. Dewar appeared. The dictionary is mainly based on the Armstrong's achievements and is one of the most accurate publications. A year later, Dr. Norman McLeod's and Dr. Daniel Dewar's `A Dictionary of the Gaelic Language' was published, the main drawback of which is the continuous imitation of the previous century dictionaries, with one exception - lexical items began to be accompanied by grammatical commentary.

In 1896, the first and now the only “An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language” by Alexander MacBain was published. The dictionary papers of this dictionary are quite short and concise. If a word has several meanings, the origin and spelling variability of each of them is revealed, if the word does not have an equivalent translation into English, it is accompanied by a detailed explanation.

At the beginning of the XX century Scottish Gaelic has been studied by many scholars, moreover, it has been taught in universities as a separate subject. New trends in the scientific study of language became a prerequisite for the compilation of “Illustrated Gaelic English Dictionary” by Edward Dwelly (1901-1902). “E. Dwelly's dictionary was based on dictionaries of previous years, and was a kind of synthesis that contained all the recorded meanings of all words that appeared in previous dictionaries or word lists, but was supplemented by large materials from other sources and Dwelly's own work” (McLeod, 2013, p. 165). Thus, each dictionary paper has a detailed character: the writing variability is indicated, each word is accompanied by its grammatical features, its usage is illustrated with examples in Gaelic and English.

Dictionaries published in the second half of the twentieth century usually partially repeat their predecessors, but differ significantly in the volume of the dictionary paper - usually only a translation and a short grammatical commentary. Notable dictionaries include Derrick Thomson's The New English-Gaelic Dictionary (1981) and Robert C. Owen's The Modern Gaelic-English Dictionary (1993), “Gaelic-English English-Gaelic Dictionary, a pocket dictionary” by Dougal Buchanan (1998).

The end of the twentieth century was marked by the publication of specialized dictionaries of plant names - “Gaelic Names for Flowers and Plants” by Douglas Clyne in 1989 and “Ainmean Gaidhlig Lusan - Gaelic Names of Plants” by Joan Clark and Ian MacDonald in 1999 p.

Thus, dictionaries of this time are characterized by a completely new, compared to the previous period, approach to the fixation and description of the lexical unit. First of all, each word was accompanied by brief information about the origin and area of use; secondly, to illustrate the peculiarities of use, each definition was supplemented by an example from the literature and everyday communication; thirdly, dictionary entries were supplemented by a grammar features, which usually contained information about gender, number, cases, etc.

Modern “educational” period of Scottish Gaelic lexicography development

The current stage of Scottish Gaelic lexicography development can be called `educational', due to the fact that most dictionaries are created for educational purposes and are intended to spread Gaelic among the population, to promote its active study and use. Among the most important publications of this time are Angus Watson's dictionary in two parts published in 2001 - “The Essential Gaelic-English Dictionary” and “The Essential English-Gaelic Dictionary”; in 2003 - “The Gaelic-English Dictionary” by Colin Mark; in 2004 - “Gaelic Dictionary (Teach Yourself)” by Ian MacDonald and Boyd Robertson. All of these publications provide proper grammar features on each lexical unit, accompanied by brief information on spelling, origin and scope, regular expressions and idiomatic phrases, and examples to explain each of the meanings in Gaelic and English.

At the same time, the first thesaurus of legal terminology of the Gaelic language appeared - in 2001 “Faclair na Parlamaid, a dictionary of governmental terminology”, and in 2011 “Dictionary for Local Government - Scottish Gaelic and English” of the Council of Western islands (Comhairle nan Eilean Siar). All thesauri are bilingual (Gaelic-English). As a rule, after the name in Gaelic, accompanied by spelling, there is a translation into English.

However, the greatest achievement of Scottish Gaelic lexicography is the appearance of the first online dictionaries, which allow to expand the target audience significantly and contribute to the preservation of the Scottish Gaelic language, even outside their country.

The first online English-Gaelic dictionary was Michael Bauer and William Robertson's Faclair Beag. Faclair Beag is an online dictionary (URL: https://www.faclair.com), which appeared in two stages, first as a digital version of Edward Dwelly's dictionary (early 2009), and later that year - a dictionary of modern Scottish Gaelic, which now contains more than 85,000 dictionary entries. You can search for a word in both Gaelic and English.

The University of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Strathclyde and the University of the Highlands and Islands through Sabhal Mor Ostaig are currently working to develop an authoritative historical Gaelic dictionary that is comparable in scale to the Scottish National Dictionary, the Old Scottish Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary. The dictionary will fully record the history of the Gaelic language and culture, starting with the oldest manuscripts, indicating the main differences between the Gaelic language and the Irish language and Scots. According to the authors, the main goal of this project is “to understand the linguistic national heritage and reveal the fundamental role of the Gaelic language in the linguistic identity of Scotland. The project is based on the Corpas na Gaidhlig, part of the Scottish Gaelic Digital Archive, based at the University of Glasgow” (Pike and Maolalaigh, 2013, p. 299).

The main milestones of the Scots language lexicographic fixation

Despite the active attention of British researchers to the study of the Scots lexicographic processes, currently there is no generally accepted periodization. After analyzing the lexicographical works on the Scots language from the twelfth century to this day, we consider it appropriate to outline four main periods in the development of the Scots lexicography:

- period of glossaries (XII century - XVIII century);

- pre-scientific and dialectological period (XIX century - early XX century);

- historical period (early twentieth century - late twentieth century);

- scientific period (XXI century).

The period of glossaries.

The first period of development of the Scots lexicography can be described as a period of glossaries (XII century - XVIII century). At this time, lists of individual words, arbitrarily chosen by the authors, were created, the interpretation of which was superficial and descriptive, mostly without specifying the grammatical or phonetic features of lexical units. This period is the longest of all in the Scottish lexicographical process, but it marked its beginning and gave an impetus to its further formation.

The first Scottish glossaries, which began to be compiled in Scotland in 1150, can be divided into two groups:

- internalglosses (accompanied by Latin texts, offering explanations in Scots);

- interlinearglosses (alphabetical lists of difficult words, most often in the form of book glossaries) (Карпова, 2013, p. 48).

However, the most significant achievement of period of glossaries is the publication of the first legal terms glossaries. In particular, the Scottish history of compiling alphabetical indexes of Scottish legal terminology has had a rather long development. There are many examples of short lists of the most complex Scots terms, presented at the end of the digest practicks of civil litigation cases. One such collection, about which little was known until recently, is a collection attributed to David Chalmers, published in 1566. As scholars point out, at least since the nineteenth century, it became known as the “Dictionary of Scotch Law” (Bell, 1838, c. xi).

It is worth noting that most Scottish legal glossaries were compiled by individual educated Scotsmen working in the field of jurisprudence. The first truly complete and logically constructed dictionary of legal terms in Scots should be considered the dictionaryglossary of John Skene “De verborum significatione - The Exposition of the terms and difficill words, conteined in the foure Buiks of Regiam Maiestatem, and uthers, in the Acts of Parliament, infeltments, and used in the practice of this Realme, and with divers rules, and common places, or principals of the Lawes” (Skene, 1641). This dictionary presents Latin and Scots legal terms of civil law with translation, explanation and examples. Vocabulary papers are mainly descriptive rather than normative. Usually the author indicates the origin of the word and can indicate in which known documents and laws, or in which cases the particular term was used. Another prominent presentation of Scottish legal terminology is “Some Doubts & Questions in the Law, Especially of Scotland” by Sir John Nisbet and Lord Dirleton, published in 1698. In its turn, this book prompted the writing of the glossary “Dirleton's Doubts and Questions in the Law of Scotland, Resolved and Answered” by Sir James Steuart of Goodtrees, then Lord Advocate (Steuart, 1715. Both works are considered the most significant achievements of Scots lexicographical terminology and have been repeatedly cited during court and parliamentary sittings (Bell, 1838, p. xiii).

“Pre-scientific and dialectological” period of development of Scots lexicography

The second period of development of Scots lexicographic science can be defined as “pre-scientific and dialectological” (XIX century - early XX century). The main trend of this stage is the dictionary compilers' attempt to determine a certain form of writing, pronunciation and use of lexical units, therefore, almost all dictionaries of this period should be considered normative. Lexicographers have tried to provide comprehensive information for each word, as a result - interpretations of words in dictionaries have a more detailed structure, but mostly retains the descriptive nature of the meaning disclosure, much attention is paid to the etymology, and the use of words is accompanied by examples from the Scottish literature. In some cases, one dictionary paper could cover almost a page, or even more. Lexicographers paid the greatest attention to the interpretation of Scottish words and expressions.

The beginning of this period is officially associated with the publication of the first complete dictionary of the Scottish language “An Etymological dictionary of the Scottish language” by John Jamieson in 1808. Edinburgh linguist and lexicographer Dr Susan Rennie points to the utmost importance of his work: `It's a tremendously important work, comparable to the great ballad collectors, preserving Scots at a time when it was seen to be disappearing... And Scots should regard it as the equal of Samuel Johnson's dictionary. It's a hugely important work in European lexicography' (Rennie, 2015).

The original name of the dictionary “An Etymological dictionary of the Scottish Language: illustrating the words in their different meanings, by examples from ancient and modern writers; shewing their affinity to those of other languages, and especially the northern; explaining many terms, which, though now obsolete in England, were formerly common to both countries; and elucidating national rites, customs and institutions, in their analogy to those of other nations; to which is prefixed, a dissertation on the origin of the Scottish language ”quite eloquently testifies to the task and content of the dictionary. Its main advantages are:

1. It was the most complete dictionary of the literary Scots language of that period.

2. Each meaning of the word the author illustrates with quotations from various literary works (from ancient to modern author's writers).

3. Each definition contains information about the origin and development of a word or a phrase.

4. The dictionary contains cultural materials.

5. There are various stylistic marks on the use of words.

6. Definitions are usually complete and clear.

Jamieson's Dictionary was the first dictionary of the Scots language, which played an important role not only in the further development of Scots lexicography, but also in the formation of literary norms of his time. In the twentieth century his materials were used in compiling the Scots National Dictionary (SND) and the Oxford Dictionary of English.

The next step in the development of Scottish lexicography was the publication of Robert Monherby's Pocket Dictionary of the Scottish Idiom in 1826. It became the first pocket and to date the only Scots-English-German dictionary. The definitions in the dictionary are quite short, indicating only part of the language of the source word. The main purpose of the dictionary, as the author himself points out, is to explain the meanings of words to better understand the works of Walter Scott, Robert Burns, Allan Ramsay and other prominent Scottish writers.

In addition to the above dictionaries, emphasis should be placed on the publication of the first Scottish-English terminological glossary for the mining industry, “A Glossary of Scotch Mining Terms”, in 1886 by James Barrowman. The dictionary papers are short and concise; terms in Scots are translated or explained in English.

In parallel with the normative lexicography in the XIX century the lexicography of the Scots language dialects has also been greatly developed. The most important dictionaries of this stage include: “A Glossary of North Country words” by John Brockett, “The dialect of Banffshire: with a glossary of words not in Jamieson's Scottish dictionary” by Walter Gregor (1866), “Observations on the Scottish Dialect” by John Sinclair (1876) and others. The main purpose of compiling these dictionaries was to preserve gradually disappearing dialectal words in different parts of Scotland and to consolidate them in the language.

“Historical” period of the Scots lexicography development.

The third period of development of Scots lexicography (XX century) can be called “historical”. It was based on the following concepts:

1) compilation of dictionaries on the historical principle;

2) replacement of the normative principle of compiling dictionaries with a relatively systematic descriptive approach;

3) description of vocabulary as a system.

These tasks were completed in 1976 with the completion of the 10-volume Scots National Dictionary (SND). Thus, this dictionary represented the vast majority of Scots words from 1700 to 1970, provided a detailed etymology, indicated the correct pronunciation of the words and illustrated all these with examples in the form of quotations from texts of various kinds. The main goal of the editors was to trace the history of each word included in the dictionary from its appearance in the language to the present day. If a word was obsolete, it was noted when it happened or how the system of its meanings has changed over the centuries.

The order of information about the word is simple and logical. The word highlighted in bold is given in its basic form. The following are spelling options, if any. After that, grammatical characteristics are offered (part of speech, basic forms of verbs, degrees of comparison of adjectives, number of nouns, etc.). This is followed by instructions on the correct pronunciation of the word, phraseological combinations for each of the word meanings. The dictionary paper ends with quotes illustrating the use of the word in its various meanings, indicating the author and date.

Also during this period, the work on the compilation of “The Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue” (DOST) began, which was finally completed in 2002. This dictionary consists of 12 volumes and covers the period of development of the Scots lexical structure from the XII century when the first written memo in Scots appeared, up to 1700. The work on compiling a dictionary lasted for 80 years.

The basic principles of editorial policy were defined under the direction of the first editor, Sir William Craig. He stated that the main purpose of the DOST was to show the linguistic richness and diversity of the Old Scots language compared to English of the same centuries. Thus, the dictionary included not only words that reflect realities similar to English, but also words and phrases that are originally Scottish and have no equivalents in English.

Under the leadership of Margaret G. Dareau the project was finally completed. M. G. Dareau believed that Scots words should definitely be presented in comparison with their English counterparts (if any), and that considerable efforts should be made to define Scots as independent national language of Scotland.

Although the “Scots National Dictionary” was available in the libraries, it was difficult to obtain and almost impossible to purchase due to its relatively high price. The solution to this problem was the publication of the “Concise Scots dictionary” in 1985, which became a combination of the already completed “SND” and the still unfinished “DOST”. This dictionary provides a very informative overview of the most commonly used vocabulary from 1200 to the 1980s, namely, reveals the meaning, etymology and grammatical features of words, provides pronunciation options, information about when and how a word or an expression was used.

“Scientific” period of the Scots lexicography development.

The current stage of Scots lexicography development (XXI century) can be defined as “scientific”, because the results of the dictionaries analysis can identify the following characteristic features:

- the desire to achieve such a complete description of the word, which allows not only understand it in a given context, but also to use it correctly in speech. Thus, the transition to dictionaries of the active type takes place;

- the attempt to overcome the traditional detachment of the dictionary description of the language from its grammatical description, which is reproduced primarily in educational dictionaries;

-the transition from exclusively philological description of the word to a holistic philological and culturological description of the word-concept, with the involvement of elements of ethno linguistic knowledge.

Equally important for the current stage of the development of Scots lexicography has been the emergence of educational dictionaries of the Scots language, intended for those who study Scots or are interested in this language. In general, in the period from 1998 to 2008 more than 20 dictionaries and thesauri were published, the main task of which is to reveal the lexical and grammatical meaning of the word, to determine the pronunciation forms and etymology of the word, idioms and phrases. Among them are “Concise English-Scots dictionary”, “The Scots Thesaurus”, “The Pocket Scots Dictionary”, “The Essential Scots Dictionary” and others.

In addition to educational dictionaries, a series of books “Say it in Scots” was published in 2008 and reprinted in 2014. The series consists of four parts: “Scottish wildlife” (Robinson, 2008), “Wha's like us?” (Robinson, 2008), “Scottish weather” (Robinson, Finlayson, 2008), “Scottish place names” (Scott, 2008). All dictionaries indicate the origin of the word, provide an explanation in English, and offer examples from the Scots literature.

In 2013, an illustrated dictionary “A guide to Scots bird names” (Jackson, 2013) was compiled by Robin Jackson. It provides a complete list of Scots names for all species of birds, with examples from the literature and English translation.

2014 was marked by the publication of the first and so far the only Scots-Polish dictionary “Scots-Polish lexicon” (Michalska, 2014), the author of which is the Polish researcher Kasia Michalska. The dictionary is presented in the form of a Scots-English- Polish glossary, without interpretation of meanings and grammatical characteristics of words.

The defining milestone of Scots lexicography in the XX century is considered to be the appearance of the first online dictionary of the Scots language (“The Dictionary of the Scots Language” (DSL)), which contains the materials of the “Scots National Dictionary” (SND) and “The Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue” (DOSL). The online dictionary combines data presented in twenty-two volumes of two dictionaries, ie has more than eighty thousand complete dictionary entries. Each record traces the chronological, etymological and semantic development of the word, providing detailed information about the spelling, grammatical changes, derived words and phrases. Many modern Scots words are illustrated from oral sources and are accompanied by information about phonological and dialectal variations. Thus, DSL is currently one of the most popular and complete dictionaries: it contains information about the etymology, grammatical features and usage of words since the twelfth century up to date.

Discussion.

Given the fact that both Scots and Scottish Gaelic have been subjected to a number of oppressions during their existence in the same geographical area, and have been equally restricted and banned during the Englishization of the Scottish population, the processes of their lexicographic fixation differ significantly not only chronologically but also in content, having their own characteristics and features.

For Scottish-Gaelic lexicography it is absolutely nontypical to compile dictionaries of dialect words and interpret Gaelic as a dialect of Irish, in contrast to the Scots, which for a long time was perceived as a dialect of English, which prompted lexicographers to write dialectal dictionaries.

In its turn, a significant advantage of Scottish Gaelic dictionaries lies in the fact that English-Gaelic dictionaries appeared decades earlier than similar editions in Scots, for Gaelic is not as closely related to English as Scots. That is the reason why the English and Gaelicspeaking Scotsmen needed publications to improve mutual understanding and socioeconomic relations at a time when such misunderstandings were unlikely to arise while interacting with those ones who spoke Scots.

Despite the fact that Scottish Gaelic remains the official language of Scotland, compared to the Scots lexicography, the Scottish Gaelic lexicography is significantly inferior both in the number of published dictionaries and in the quality of their content (macro- and microstructure). Scots lexicography is represented by a greater variety of dictionary genres, including online dictionaries and advanced digitalized dictionaries.

However, the common feature of both lexicographic processes serves the absence of monolingual dictionaries. All publications turn across bilingual (translated into English, or from English, rarely in other languages). This fact undoubtedly indicates the existing problem of linguistic self-identification, a small amount of speakers who would use the language in all spheres of life, as well as the weak language policy, which insufficiently supports the development and preservation of both languages in Scotland.



Conclusions

The paper presents the results of diachronic and synchronic analysis of the features of the Scottish Gaelic and Scots lexicographic processes, in order to identify common and distinctive features.

After analyzing the dictionary publications of different times, we defined three periods of the Scottish Gaelic lexicography development - the period of glossaries, the historical period, and the modern `educational' period. Scottish-Gaelic lexicography currently passes through the stage of its active formation: vocabulary genres are being diversified, and computer lexicography is being actively developed.

The Scots lexicography has four periods of its development: period of glossaries, pre- scientific and dialectological, historical and scientific. Taking into account the specifics of the Scots dictionaries, the periods of the Scots lexicography development can be clearly defined, due to the fact that dictionaries of one type occur only during a certain period and are not traced during the others. This is primarily due to the fact that over time the needs of society as a whole have changed, and now dictionaries, which were relevant half a century ago, have lost their relevance, giving way to other types.

Considering the editions of all these periods, the Scots lexicographic process as a whole, is characterized by the lack of monolingual dictionaries (the vast majority is bilingual (Scots-English)). Thus, all dictionaries are characterized by the disclosure of the meaning, origin and characteristics of use in English, not Scotts, which indicates a current language problem in Scotland.

Moreover, even with the active lexicography of Scotland's minority languages, the existing dictionaries still have a number of shortcomings:

- partial vocabulary coverage, which often comes down to compiling lists of the most commonly used lexical units;

- excessive use, and sometimes abuse of archaisms, preserved in literary sources and almost unknown to the active speaker;

- multivariate spelling of words, especially in the absence of a language standard (Scots).

The special emphasis should be placed on the mixed style of presentation and interpretation of lexical units that have / do not have direct translational equivalents, which are usually used by the vast majority of lexicographers. In most cases, if a word has a direct equivalent, the translation is indicated by a single word or phrase, however, in the absence of an equivalent, the word is given a detailed explanation, which makes it difficult for unprepared users to understand.



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