Information structure of comparisons of inequality in old english riddles

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Information structure of comparisons of inequality in old english riddles

Lilia P. Kalytiuk

Дослідження спрямоване на вивчення інформаційного наповнення компаративних структур нерівності у загадках давньоанглійської мови The Exeter Book Х ст. Установлено, що порівняння не виступають як економний спосіб представлення нової інформації. Навпаки, вказані структури є засобом для переобтяження, заплутування та спантеличення реципієнта з метою блокування легких шляхів відгадування загадки. Суб'єкт загадки, хоч інколи й неістота, самоідентифікується через розмиті семантично дифузні особові дейктики (прозопопея). З'ясовано, що канонічний принцип інформаційної структури («старе передує новому») порушується в порівняннях давньоанглійських загадок, оскільки старе, відоме у загадках, виступає невідомим. Інформаційне наповнення порівнянь нерівності у названих загадках набуває такої форми: «невідоме реципієнту + нове, але відоме з попереднього досвіду». Інформація представлена у такий спосіб, щоб задіяти екзофоричний (часто з культурною складовою) контекст відгадувальника. Для виявлення специфічних рис давньоанглійських компаративів нерівності у статті подекуди містяться звернення до відповідних структур готської та давньопівнічноїмов.

Ключові слова: давньоанглійські загадки, інформаційне наповнення, інформаційна структура, компаративи нерівності, прозопопея.

Introduction

riddle comparison information canonical

Aim and Objectives

- to analyze comparisons of inequality expressed by adjectives in comparative degree [Adj + er] in OE riddles;

- to highlight the specificity of information structure of comparisons in OE riddles as contrasted with ON Edda (Voluspa (Codex Regius, ca 10th c.) and The Gothic Bible (Codex Argenteus, 6th c.);

- to determine the function of comparisons of inequality.

Methodology

Results

The taxonomic Status of Clauses Containing Comparisons.

Due to contaminated semantics of comparative clauses, their taxonomic status is still not agreed upon. They are viewed either as separate comparative clauses or as belonging to clauses of manner which are included into a broader group of adverbial clauses (for more details, please, see COBUILD, 2011: 672). The comparative clauses can roughly be grouped into those where things / objects / notions of the same quality are compared (as...as, like, the same) and those where things of different amount of quality (Comp. degree Adj. than; superlative Adj in / of) are compared. Comparative clauses can be viewed as an example of economy of effort, being a basic cognitive activity comparisons cut the distance of getting new knowledge (Kharitoncik, 2004: 23) because new, unknown, unusual is understood by comparing with old, known, trivial. Being the basic sourse of knowledge, comparisons make it possible to pick one trait of things and look for similarities or differences between them. Together with analogy, deductive and inductive reasoning, comparison is a universal tool and can be observed in language (Vorkachev, 2013: 2, 86). Comparison is a unique operation which is not restricted to one level of language hieararchy, i.e. it is not only syntax where comparison can be observed. Words like bullish, bearish, sheepish, bossy, manly, comparative structures like as... as, metaphors are the examples of explicit or implicit comparison manifested at various language levels.

Structure of Comparative Clauses of Inequality.

Comparative clauses of inequality are thought to constitute four members: subject of comparison, object of comparison, basis for comparison and the marker of comparative relations (see Ikalyuk, 2010). In this paper the members of comparison are viewed with respect to information packaging: subject - new, unknown; object - old, known, to which the riddler directs attention, basis for comparison - a selected property of a subject possessed by the object and in the context of this research is expressed by an adjective in the comparative degree. E.g.:

Subject is Basis [Adj. comp. degree] THAN object.

In other words, [NP] is usually the topic, known, presupposed, textually bound. New information is within [VP] group. Such allocation of `subject new /unknown - object old /known' in OE riddling practice contradicts the point of view that schools of thought more or less assume. Topic identification does not rely only on formal criteria, grammatical subjects are not necessarily topics (as in expletives) and grammatical subjects are not exlusively topics. In riddles it is the subject that is to be guessed, it cannot be restored anaphorically, there are no contextual links to it in the text. By definition, it is the object in VP which is to carry out this function. Futhermore, it complies with the standard allocation of information within a sentence: old before new. But when we consider OE riddling practice, the things do not seem to be that definite.

Let's have a closer look at the structure of the comparatives in OE. In the example (2) taken from Riddle 40, line 50: (2) Ic eorpan eom aghwar brxdre = I earth am everywhere broader = I am everywhere broader than the earth, the subject Ic, the object eorpan, basis for comparison bradre. Topic Ic is immediately followed by focus eorpan which in its turn is followed by the verb. So this structure is archaic, replicating PIE and Common Germanic word order SOV. In the following example, (3) hefigere ic eom micle pon se hara stan = Heavier I am much than the gray stone = I am far heavier than the gray stone the subject - ic (I), the object - hara stan (gray stone), the basis - hefigere (heavier). Topicalization (or localization' to be more terminologically accurate) of hefigere is a movement of the constituent to sentence initial position with the aim to highlight the property of the object - gray stone. The structure of the said comparisons testifies to the fact that the order of the constituents in OE comparisons was not fixed. If we conventionally number these constituents in order they should appear in Modern English as 1 Subject - 2 Ground / Basis - THAN 3 Object, then OE comparisons in riddles allow possible ordering: 132, 31 MARKER LON 2, as illustrated in (2) and (3). The marker pon is non-binding as in Riddle 40, line 38: Hyrre ic eom heofone = higher I am than heaven.

The Information Packaging of Comparisons in OE Riddling Practice.

There is general agreement among scholars that the linear order of sentence constituents is largely the result of the informational dichotomy: old :: new, i.e. the speaker and the hearer are prepared to en/decode information according to what is contextually known and what is new. Intonation is another telltale sign of determining contextually new and old information in the message but in diachronic research it seems inaccessible, and is not possible to be taken into consideration. Information packaging (Chafe, 1976: 28) is described as the way the message is sent, this is the prioritized aspect and the message itself is the secondary issue. It is now axiomatic that the sentence is of binary character and is partitioned into focus - ground (also known as focus - topic, rheme - theme, new - given etc.). This partition is central in information packaging and is elaborately highlighted in various schools of thought (see Erteschik-Shirt 1986, Wilbur 2012, Hinterwimmer, 2019, Roberts, 2019, Ward and Birner, 2019 inter alia). Focus - ground is like a step forward combined with a step back in information packaging. A step back (ground) is either textually / discourse bound anaphoric reference or interlocutors' experience, shared knowledge of reality. The focus (a step forward), is generally viewed as the most salient discourse entity. Referents in focus are those ones, known to the hearer, that are in some sense activated or salient. Focus is associated with new, rheme. The function of focus is to provide new information about topic and to draw the addressee's attention to it (Wilbur, 2012: 473). Ground is associated with old, and termed differently by scholars: theme (Firbas, 1964), presupposition (Chomsky, 1971), background (Daht, 1974), topic (Hajikova, 1984), old information (Halliday, 1967; 1985), open proposition (Prince, 1986). Focus information is marked in the sentence. It is the position to the verb that is relevant for identifying the sentence segment as marked. Thematic position is usually preceeding [VP], being sentence initial whereas rhematic, new information is postverbal. In other words, the most important information goes last.

But at the same time it is not always the case that the sentence initial position acts as a link to the previously stated information and can introduce new information in a communication event (for more details, please, see Geurts, 2019: 481 - 510). In the Germanic languages the fixed word order was triggered due to systemic changes which resulted in SVO structure, now a dominant English word order pattern with subject (ground) initial and object (focus) final, reflecting the tendency to package information in the order `given - new\ Given / old information is expressed early in the sentence and precedes new information. It is viewed as iconic: old before new (Haiman, 1983: 781 - 819).

Thematic Progression in Comparative Clauses in OE Riddles.

The dynamics of information flow, thematic progression, according to Frantishek Danes (1974) can be of three types: 1) keeping the theme constant, 2) deriving the theme from the previous rheme, 3) deriving the theme from the `hypertheme'. Keeping the theme constant is defined by Nomi Erteschik-Shir as `topic chaining' (Erteschik-Shir, 2007: 2-3), i.e. the same topic appears as anaphoric reference to the one in the previous sentence. In doing so the same topic is maintained throughout the communicative event. In this article I will dismiss the second and third types of thematic progression, which appear to be scarce in the sentences containing comparisons in OE riddles. For insntance, in riddle 33 (31) the topic rotates around the riddling entity (an Iceberg), though it is referred to as mother, daughter, she (4), still the riddlee knowing the rules of the game and abstracting from direct reference (mother - daughter) wades through tangled descriptions in an effort to assess those vague, misleading and allegoric foci, to guess the topic. Riddles in OE is perceptual and mental exercise with strongly present descriptive element, which enables the riddlee to glimpse beyond the veil of the material world, to reveal the hidden nature of things (Paz, 2017: 16).

E.g.:

10 pas deorestan, pat is dohtor min eacen up liden; swa pat is aldum cup, firum on folce, pat seo on foldan sceal on ealra londa gehwam lissum stondan. ”

Is my mother of maiden kind

The dearest, that is daughter of mine powerful sails up, so that is by old known among the folk that she shall come joyfully to all land on each in peace stand “My mother the dearest of women; she is my daughter grown up powerful.

It is known to old men, to folk among all people, that she shall come up beautifully and peacefully everywhere in the world. ”

Universal and Unique Specificity of Riddling Practice.

Riddling appears to be a historically constant cultural universal, but the content and structure of the riddle is likely to be diachronically and culturally variable. Latin and OE riddling traditions tend to lend animateness to things, known among scholars as prosopopoeia, a figure of speech in which an abstract thing is personified; an imagined, absent or dead person or thing is represented as speaking (Oxford Dictionary, 2010: 1426).

The OE riddle typically consists of unnamed riddling entity (a wiht), it can be either a single word or some binominal and its semantically diffuse description, containing allegory, parables, indirect reference, hints, metaphors, euphemisms, vague comparisons and patchy explanations which only sketch in a dotted line the contours of the possible solution. In this research, the riddling entity is understood as a thing or living being, substance or abstract notion which is the subject of description, something which is to be guessed / solved by the riddlee.

In riddling discourse practice the answer is usually restricted to one and only one correct option. But when it comes to OE riddling tradition, there can be literal and allegoric answers like: a) fish in the river and b) soul in the body (Riddle 43); a) bookworm, bookmoth and b) maggot and psalter (Riddle 47); or double entendre of Riddle 45 a) parallels of erotic character and b) making dough. In other words, the riddle sometimes presupposes double reading. In some cases, riddling entity (the subject / topic) is named as afore mentioned mother, daughter or less definite `stealing guest" in Riddle 42 (K-D 47) (5). But it is more often the case when the narration can be first person (ic, me) as in Riddle 40 (6), or the thing can be referred to using third person deixis, e.g. he, and things, artifacts, animals, take on human voices (prosopoeia). E.g.:

Stodgiest ne wies wihte py gleawra, pe he pam wordum swealg.

The stealing guest was not at all the wiser for that, for those words which he swallowed.

Ic eom fegerre fretwum goldes | peah hit mon awerge wirum utan | Ic eom wyrslicre pon pes wudu fula | odde pis warod pe her aworpen liged

Fairer I am than ornaments of gold, | although they be covered with delicate work. | I am filthier too than this foul wood | or this seaweed that lies cast up here.

In the riddles the comparisons are far from serving the purpose to give a clear idea about a thing or a living being, they are hints and do not help to get information prematurely, allowing the recipient to sift for possible solutions. Another interesting feature of OE riddles is that hyperobjects often act as subjects of riddling. These hyperobjects are elusive, incomprehendible, spanning massively in time and space, they are present and absent at the same time (rain - raindrops are a single manifestation of elusive `climate') (see more on this in James Paz, 2017).

As was aforementioned, comparison is traditionally viewed as an economical way to inform the addressee about some fragment of reality. Riddles conform to a model of communication made up of a code and an encoded message that is first transmitted and then decoded. It is a directed thinking. The speaker refers to the property of the already commonly known thing, action or state. The riddle creatures are not palpable, they are elusive, shape shifting and provoke the reader to think in the given direction, to learn the nature of things, to get used to the idea that things in the world can speak for themselves, and such constant notions as age, gender, space can be diffuse and not certain. Very often the property of a thing chosen for comparison is based on traditional, routinely accepted social stereotype. For example, in a given society something / someone is attributed to be big, small, sly, wise, brave, angry, swift, bright, fat, smelly. And this feature can serve the point of reference, which is not necessarily textually bound often being of exophoric (relying on life experience of communicators) character.

OE riddling practice allows comparisons as the basic syntactic building block reinforced by lexical cohesion usually of antonymic character as in the brilliant example is Riddle 40, containing over 100 lines (!) and 15 pairs of adjectival antonyms. And not so many synonyms: broader - wider (lines 50-51). The adjective antonyms are actually textholders in the riddle in question, with comparatively distant occurance step of the opposite word (the span is usually 2-3 lines (hereinafter l. in this passage) apart from each other). Cf: l.16 blead = cowardly, timid - l. 18 cenra = bolder; l. 26 delicate - l. 31 foul, l. 38 Hyrre = higher - l. 41 under eorpan = under the earth, l. 42 yldra = older - l. 44 geong = young, l. 46 fie ger re = fairer - l. 48 wyrslicre = viler, l. 74 Hefigere = heavier - l. 76 leohtre = lighter, l. 78 heardre = harder - l. 80 hnescre = softer. In Riddle 40 comparisons is the major force in topic chaining and in keeping the theme constant by developing rheme.

The specificity of the riddle is comparable to some extent with deixis (pointing without naming). But in riddles, it is describing without naming. Direct transfer of information is blocked in accordance with the restrictions of the genre. According to Pepicello W.J. and Green Th.A. (1984), the riddlee should be incapable of solving riddles posed by the riddler (Pepicello and Green, 1984: 21). Thus, the content of the riddle balances between said and unsaid, transparency and vagueness. Linguistic ambiguity of riddling allows multiple interpretations of the ingoing message violating P. Grice's maxims of quality and manner, whereas during normal conversation the speaker as a rule strives for clarity thus satisfying the said principles of communication. As such the riddles are intentionally user-unfriendly, or half-friendly, reflecting the riddler's attempt to confuse the riddlee. The information sought by the riddlee is to be derived from the past experience, being of exophoric character. The riddles are timeless. They are not restricted in space or time i.e. they cannot be predicated in spatio-temporal parameter; they are not situational.

The specificity of comparisons in OE riddles can obtain more distinct contours if contrasted with other Old Germanic sources, eg. with those in Voluspa if we abstract ourselves from minute details. The said riddles share some common features but at the same time they differ in their function and in the way the world is presented (cultural aspect). ON comparisons based on inequality serve and support the general didactic idea of Edda. What meets the eye is the antithesical character of the issues compared in ON, eg. the lack of praying vs its overabundance: (7) Betra er obedit en se ofblotit, (Voluspa, 145)); lack of something is better than abundance: (8) betra er osent en se ofsoit (ibid., 145)). The subject and object of the said comparisons are semantically homogenious units sharing the same broader topic in termes of their belonging to abstract vs concrete notions: abstract:: abstract as eg. burden - wisdom: (9) Byrdi betri berr-at madr brautu at en se mannvit mikit; audi betrapykkir pat і okunnum stad (ibid., 10); concrete - concrete: a hall - shining sun Sal ser hon standa solu fegra (ibid., 64), a house / a hut - lack of accomodation. OE comparisons of inequality in the riddles are built on the same principle as well. The compared units are on the same line correlating with abstract - concrete notions, eg. abstract sundorcreft (= art) in Riddle 4 is compared with the diffuse formulation than any men know (10) sundorcreft hafa eth maran micle ponne hit men witen = special art has it more become greater than it men know = translation: A special power it has more greater than any men know. In Edda subject-object relations in comparisons of inequality do not serve the purpose to make the ingoing information easier either. Their function is purely didactic being adjusting or admonishing in character. The abstractedness of such comparisons is readily detected despite concrete and down-to-earth constituents used for comparing (subject - goats, patched roof, a hut; the object - begging). The basis for comparison in ON is diffuse and is predominantly betra - `better'.

The correlation between abstract - abstract or concrete - concrete subjects and objects (regularly observed in ON Voluspa), is not so definite in OE riddles. In Riddle 40, solved as abstract Creation, the abstract riddling entity is compared with a concrete plant `lily': ic eom betre ponne heo = I am better than she (line 28). Abstract property `brevity' (basis for comparison) is compared with concrete object `wild boar' (line 19). The prosopopoeic narrator (the riddling entity is identified as such through 1pers singular verb `eom') is compared with concrete wild boar in a certain situation: (11) ond eofore eom eghwer cenra, ponne he gebolgen bidsteal giefed (Riddle 40, 19). And wild boar am everywhere fiercer than he angry stand gives = [I] am bolder than a wild boar, when he, enraged, makes a stand.

Anglo-Saxon Priorities and Values as Viewed in Comparisons of OE Riddles.

Pre Christian or early Christian period in Germanic culture reveals different priorities and values of the Germanic people. OE eofre (ON j0furr) cited in (11) supplanted in c.1300 by `wild boar' (jofurr from the Proto-Norse “*eburaR”, meaning `chief, king' developed from `wild boar', which is either amelioration of the meaning or metaphor in terms of Leonard Bloomfield's classification of semantic change. Here the demarcation line between the two is fairly thin). It is now not commonly known that due to the association of bravery men and women sometimes receive(d) names with the element ON jofurr, OSaxon: evur; OE: eofor in it: Everard (= lit. strong boar) in English; Eofor, son of Wonred, was a Geatish warrior in `Beowulf'; OE Eoforwine = friend of boars, Modern English Irwin (Dictionary of Etymology URL: https://www.etymonline.com); OHG Eberhard; ON Jofurr, lafri etc. Contrastingly cf negative, derogatory meaning of `pig' and derivatives developed beginning from Middle English onwards: piggish, pigsney, piggledy, peccary. Domesticated pigs on the contrary are not so much admired in the Anglo-Saxon society and traditionally featured parametrically (big, fat) as in Riddle 40: (12) Mara Ic eom ondfxttrapo amested swm [...] Bigger I am fatter than masty swine = I am bigger and fatter than the masty swine [...].

Comparisons in OE riddles shed some more light on the way the world was modeled and categorized in the distant past. The basis for comparison includes notions related to parameter (size, height), sense perception (taste, odour, tactile quality, etc.), speed, emotions and feelings. Surprisingly, salt serves as the model of sharpness: (13) smeare pon sealt (= sharper than salt) (Riddle 91); handworm which causes scabies is the model of tiny size: (14) lesse pon hond-wyrm (Riddle 12 (K-D 66)) = smaller than a handworm, as opposed to Biblical mustard seed eg. in Goth. kaurno sinapis: galaubein swe kaurno sinapis (CA Mark 4:31; CA Luke 17:6, URL: http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/browse/); the whole world / earth is the model of vastness in Riddle 12: (15) Ic eom mareponpes mindan geard [yard, land] = I am greater than this world; and in Riddle 40 (38): (16) Ic eorpan eom eghwer brxdre ond widgielra pon pes wong grena folm mec meg bifon = I am broader than the world and everywhere and wider than this green meadow. In the Riddle 12 solved as Quill pen the swiftness of a bird synecdochically serves the basis for comparison: (17) swift wes on fore fulgum framra = Swift was its moving, faster than birds. Incense and the rose are the model of fragrance in Riddle 40: (18) Ic eom on stence strengrepon ricels oppe rose sy.on eorpan tyrf = My fragrance is stronger ..than any incense or any rose in the field of earth...[lines 23-24]. The whale is referred to as the example of big size and strength: (19) Mara ic eom ond strengra ponne se micla hwa'l: bigger I am stronger than a large whale = I am greater and stronger than the large whale [ibid., line 92]. Frost is viewed to be the point of reference of coldness and hardness: (20) heardra ic eom ond caldra pon se hearda forst = harder I am and colder than the hard frost [ibid., Riddle 40-38, line 54].

When it comes to the bases of comparison of the moon and the sun, there is more to the story, than meets the eye. The riddling entity (Creation) in riddle 40 (38) is compared with brightness of the moon: leohtreponne mona; = brighter than the moon; and the agility of the sun: swiftre pon sunne = swifter than the sun. This is the reflection of Germanic prioritizing of the moon over the sun. The sun was attributed to play the secondary role, as the moon's inferior companion: Sol varp sunnan, sinni mana = Sun shone from the south, moon's companion (ON Voluspa, 5). According to etymological findings, the moon got the name prior to the sun and the latter of the two derived its name from the former (Taranets, 2008: 145 - 146). In English the noun ` sun' was of feminine gender well until the 16th c. and since then masculine prevailed; whereas the noun ` moon', being senior, had masculine gender. The said reflects the hierarchy in patriarchal society as it was. The moon was considered more important than the sun probably because the former appears when it is dark and helps wayfarers by lighting their way. Besides, the moon and the sun both were the points of reference of time and space (lunar calendars, cf moon - month, position of the sun as the marker of time and season). Thus, the agility of the sun was not at all randomly picked as the basis for comparison.

Conclusions

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