The rearrangement and shift of the multi-word units
Development of a new view on changes and transformations of secondary, sequential secondary values of multicomponent units. Analysis of operations of semantic change, which are described in terms of shifts and transformations, which demonstrates mimesis.
| Рубрика | Иностранные языки и языкознание |
| Вид | статья |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 21.02.2022 |
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The rearrangement and shift of the multi-word units
Abstract
The modern linguistics has a wide variety of approaches to describe the natural language meanings. In our research, we rely on the corpus-based approach, which aims to offer a particular way of looking at multi word units change and shift with MWUs acquiring the secondary meaning and subsequent rearrangements. Using the interface of the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) the article verifies the multi word units, which are regarded as the secondary units, where each value of the literal meaning is changed, modified or erased. The operations of semantic deviation have been described in the terms of shifts and rearrangements demonstrating mimesis, when the initial meaning of MWUs can be partially modified or completely neutralized. The semantic shifts are viewed as the secondary and the post-secondary changes. In the process of semantic deviation, the old meaning of the modified figurative expression is deleted and the brand new conceptual unit appears.
It is assumed that the rearranged MWUs are involved in different cognitive scenarios, where they can also play the role of secondary deviations. The developed corpus-based methodology of the MWUs research has resulted in an effective algorithm to fix processes and mechanisms of semantic shifts.
Keywords: MWUs, COCA, shift and rearrangement, neo, mimesis.
Анотація
Сучасна лінгвістика має широкий спектр підходів до опису природних мовних значень. У дослідженні з позицій корпусного підходу запропоновано новий погляд на зміни та перетворення вторинного та секвелярного вторинного значення багатокомпонентних одиниць. Використовуючи інтерфейс Корпусу сучасної американської англійської мови (COCA), у статті верифіковані багатокомпонентні одиниці, що розглядаються як вторинні одиниці, де кожне їх буквальне значення змінюється або делітується. Операції семантичної зміни описуються в термінах зсувів та перетворень, що демонструє мімезис, коли буквальне значення багатокомпонентних одиниць частково модифікується або нейтралізується загалом. Семантичні зрушення визначаються як вторинні та пост-вторинні зміни. У процесі семантичного розвитку колишнє значення вже зміненого образного виразу нівелюється і з'являється цілком нова одиниця.
Робиться припущення, що перетворені багатокомпонентні одиниці беруть участь у різних когнітивних сценаріях, де вони можуть виконувати роль і вторинних девіацій. Розроблена корпусна методика дослідження багатокомпонентних одиниць є ефективним алгоритмом для фіксації процесів і механізмів семантичних перетворень.
Ключові слова: багатокомпонентні одиниці, корпус сучасної американської мови, зміни та перетворення, неологічна одиниця, мімезис.
Introduction
In this research we use the procedure of analysis of MWUs (Multi words units) which is directed towards compiling the MWUs with understanding that these units may be new, unknown or partially known or unpredictably changed. The modified figurative expressions demonstrate mimesis, but the converted MWUs appear to be completely new conceptual units. What is the most important for this research and what we find interesting is compiling the registry of MWUs consisting of Phraseological Units (PU) seen as Phraseological Ngrams: set expressions, free expressions, phraseological units, neology units, shell words, other MWUs found in dictionaries and context. All the units denote the common idea that can be unknown, unique or lacunar thus needs extra clarification what can be done in compiling the registry of MWUs.
In this article we focus on the cognitive scenario “change in form and meaning” analyzing some types of MWUs in corpus data. Today, with the rapid development of the corpus-based studies and computational approaches along with the availability of huge electronic corpora we have made possible to see the change of form and meaning in MWUs.
Aim and Objectives.
The aim of the article is to represent the rearrangement and shift of the multi-word units.
Methodology and Materials.
Our approach relies on corpus-based studies with possibility of data extraction from different corpora. Due to the intuitive interface of the Corpus of the Contemporary American English we have chosen COCA. As our purpose to rely the corpus based approach to teaching EFL we prefer online method which gives the possibility to operate huge data without specialized tools.
The corpus we are creating has data of MWUs comprising rearranged, low-frequent and lacunar units to help students in their EFL studies and applied corpus-based research.
The method of multi-words extraction is semi-automatic: it can be based on SQL generic search to extract unknown MWUs from corpora and by manual search to follow the development of the existing MWUs in various contexts. Our criteria for selection of MWUs were the identification of MWUs as cognitive metaphors or other context dependent elements and sending the selected MWUs into the group of rearranged MWUs.
1. Theoretical Fundamentals
1.1 Insights into MWUs: Multidisciplinary Research
The secondary and post-secondary rearrangements is the new linguistic area for research and analysis as the deviation of MWUs is seen in the light of the Semantic Change thus including modifications of form and meaning to be studied within the COCA corpus data environment. The research problem is correlating with frame semantics and cognitive scenarios that making it is clear to see that the research area is especially significant for cognitive semantics.
It is important for this research to follow how new meaning arise and how the rearranged patterns appear. The linguists explore the idea of MWUs changes of form and meaning based on the broad context may give new brilliant examples of the extracted units. The corpus data (e.g. KWIC) have been analyzed in the article. These interpreted data are used both within the framework of cognitive semantics and corpus studies further included in finding scenarios (cognitive metaphors) and registering their change in the given context (corpus-based research). The analysis has shown that MWUs are often used in a modified form as corpus data illustrate and that MWUs change their form and meaning according to the cognitive scenario “change in form and meaning” from positive to negative, neutral to colloquial, bookish to neutral, etc. The core idea is often implicated from the previous form partially rearranged; the inner form being modified can be readable due to transparent implications and the reconstructed previous empirical knowledge. MWUs are broadly interpreted as all phraseological units (phraseologisms), non-fixed collocations (weakly idiomatic phrases), idiomatic phrases, all set phrases of a language including proverbs that can be found in corpora by linguists including computational scholars (Colson 2017: 17). Other definitions illustrate the terminology growth related to MWUs, some of the most common terms being chunk, clichd, collocation, extended lexical unit, fixed expression, formulaic sequence, idiom, idiomatic expression, lexicalized phrase, multi-word unit, phraseme, phraseologism, phraseological unit, phrasal lexical item, phrasal lexeme, prefabricated chunk, prefab (Huning, M., & Schlucker, B. 2015: 450). Some of these terms are regarded synonyms and close terms according to definitions by different scholars, but for the most part meanings overlap only partially. In general, all MWUs can be described as extended lexical units with different degrees of syntactic fixedness and semantic compositionality, fixed or free (idiom and collocation) (Huning, Schlucker, 2015: 450).
The recent studies explore corpus data, fixed expressions and phraseology (Colson 2017). As Masini states (2005: 145) MWUs are “lexical units larger than a word that can bear both idiomatic and compositional meanings”. Sprenger (2003: 4) finds that MWUs as lacunar fixed set-expressions can be defined as specific combinations of two or more words with an opaque meaning or a deficient syntactic structure. These MWUs can be often lacunar to nonnative speakers which can be overcome in the broad context of the corpus data.
MWUs are variably-based and are identified as phraseological units, multiword lexical units, polylexical words, items characterized for fixedness, including psycholinguistic fixity (speakers conceiving it as a unit), structural fixity (with variations) and pragmatic fixity (Lopez, 2015: 162).
The MWU being a part of the `'“frozen phraseology''” correlate with cognitive endozone of lacunarity. The obvious characteristic of MWUs is indicating their part of speech. The lacunar taxons of MWUs corpus include several slots in the POS structure (parts of speech): fixed verbal idiom (e.g. bite the bullet), fixed frozen adverbial (e.g. all at once), fixed particle verbs (e.g. stick out), non-fixed complex nominal (e.g. daycare center). The modified proverb can be traced as changed MWUs: the archaic “The suit does not make the man”” turned into modern ““Clothes do not make the man”” according to the cognitive scenario “change in form and meaning” due to changes in the socio-cultural context (Pintaric & Skific, 2006: 210).
1.2 MWUs as N-grams in COCA Search
The idea of representing MWUs as bigrams (two-word units) as (1) easy rider, New York, pay attention, sharp criticism and three words units (trigram) as (2) to be in a habit, take a bath, deliver a speech and multi words units (MWUs) as (3) add insult to injury, at the drop of a hat, back to the drawing board, barking up the wrong tree, beat about the bush is popular in computational linguistics (Colson 2017: 19). Bigrams, trigrams and multigrams are easily taken from corpus environment as COCA or BNC and other available or self-made corpora and can be analyzed according to the frequency rate extraction from the corpus data to illustrate the rare lacunar usage or to indicate MWUs as popular collocations.
The search for MWUs in corpora is a modern tool in learning and teaching EFL. Students can trace the level of frequency of MWUs in a certain context and how the new patterns change. Teaching EFL the corpus data gives a vast number of phrasal verbs which are also called multi-word verbs (Eales, Oakes 2015: 35) and rare or figurative expressions (e.g. only four cases in COCA) that can be difficult to learn context free (e.g. make me cross). In class learning English as a foreign language student may be asked to create save lists from the corpus they use for illustrations extracted to compare the results of the meaning changed or rearranged (e.g. doesn't make me cross the street (COCA, SPOK, 2014); God make me cross over and join them (COCA, FIC, 2003); you make me cross (COCA, FIC, 1994); You're going to make me cross, Sarabian (COCA, FIC, 1993).
To know the word in context KWIC or searched for the English collocations of the base is searched (habitude - habit) and from its entry, the collocation expressing the terminative aspect of habit (i.e. get out of a habit) is retrieved (Heid 1994: 252). semantic mimesis secondary value
The COCA Corpus gives possibility to access the authentic corpus data for analysis and comparison of the changed forms of MWUs. MWUs have changed as: the search entry bird in the hand gives the variation result (the changed proverb): (1) ““A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush - Better a bird in the hand than AIDS in the ass” (COCA 1991, ACAD, LatAmPopScult), the search entry shaken not stirred (the changed quotation) gives the variation result: (2) classic shaken, not stirred martini - Diet Coke, shaken not stirred) (COCA 1990, FIC, Knopf A.: Jurassic Park), the search entry eggs is eggs gives the variation result (the changed metaphorical expression): (3) as sure as eggs is eggs - And this, in his strained English: Eggs is eggs and pigs is pigs) (COCA 2015, FIC, IowaRev), the search entry gives the result of rethink (the rearranged verbal idiom): (4) to kick the bucket - it's easier to kick the bucket than to kick the habit, to shoot the breeze - telephoned at least once a month, usually to shoot the breeze (COCA 2014, Mag, Science News); the search entry make up gives the variation result evident in the COCA context (polysemantic phrasal verbs) (to make up - (5) The city of Los Angeles had to make up a funding gap in the project after the value of federal low-income housing tax (COCA 2017, NEWS, Los Angeles Times).
Some MWUs demonstrate change in meaning depending on post prepositions as the light verb constructions to have a look gives variation results (to have a look - (1) They called me to have a look at him, but I just smiled and waved (COCA, 2016, FIC, The Antioch Review; I'll be there by about one-thirty to have a look around the area (COCA, 2016, FIC, Bk:HardAsIce); the search entry to wash car gives the result of syntactic fixedness: to wash car - (2) I wash car windows for all the jerks on their way to work (COCA, 1998, FIC, scholastic).
The stereotyped similes may be changed and rearranged, for instance the search entry as nice as gives the result (1) as nice as nice can be (COCA, 2008, FIC, ContempFic), (2) as nice as I can get (COCA, 2007, SPOK, Fox Susteren), (3) as nice as I can put it (COCA, 1993, SPOK, ABCSpecial); the search entry beg and [...] with zero ending gives the result of the rearranged binomial expressions as (1) beg and pray (COCA, 2017, SPOK, NPR: Fresh Air), (2) to beg and plead, shout and scream (COCA, 2015 MAG, ChristToday), (3) to beg and creak under bloated budgets (COCA, 2008, MAG, AmSpect); t-Complex nominals vary in the context: man about town - (1) a celebrity man about town (COCA, 2015, SPOK, PBS: PBS Newshour), man about town - (2) a true man about town (COCA, 2015, NEWS, USAToday), man about town - (3) sophisticated man about town (COCA, 2009, MAG, AmericanSpectator), man about town - (4) a single man about town (COCA, 2007, MAG, Newsweek). MWUs in collocations can be fixed, with additional meanings added due to articles co-occurring in COCA (definite / indefinite / zero), for instance: hard frost - partially rearranged in before (1) the first hard frost in October (COCA,1994, MAG, MotherEarth), hard frost - (2) after hard frost (COCA, 1995, MAG, MotherEarth), hard frost - (3) the onions for storage any time after they lie down and before a hard frost (COCA,1996, MAG, MotherEarth).
MWUs stay fixed in fossilized or frozen forms (all of a sudden - All of a sudden, he's in a rush (COCA, 2016, FIC, Bk:ConfessorsClub) and routine formulas unchanged as Good morning demonstrate high frequency rate (all of a sudden gives 7324 results and Good morning - 21803). It is possible to find non-fixed MWUs in the broad context of COCA, in the manner of making a CQL query: for instance, budge. [v*] gives different verb forms as: let alone budge, will barely budge at all, will not budge on these issues, etc. (COCA 1997, 2011, SPOK, PBS Newshour).
1.3 The Theory of Semantic Change: deletions or coining a neo
As Blank (1999) claims that one of the central topics of linguistics is the problem of language change for “language change is a consequence of inherent characteristics of man's mind and human social interaction” (Blank,1993: 63).
The Theory of Semantic Change has appeared and many scholars developed new methods and description in semantics. Researchers improved models of linguistic change distinguishing semantic and language-specific semantic structures to understand why the new meanings occur (ibid, 1993: 99). The key idea of the Theory of Semantic Change lies in the linguistic change that occurs at the different layers of the language comprising the lexical, grammatical, and cognitive deviations and rearrangements.
MWUs transfer into other languages can be implemented by deletions cutting off the unknown or euphemized element causing the informative lacunae, by sense substitutions or formal form shifts forming the partial cognitive or formal lacunae, by innovations eliminating lacunae by creating new word unit, by commentary and other interpretations filling in lacunae by the accompanied explanation (Szerszunowicz, 2013: 207).
When the initial meaning can be modified or partially removed, thus the secondary meaning arising out, so we deal with semantic shift. If the form of the word (nominative unit) or multi-word units (communicative units) change, the lexical and semantic changes occur. The changes took place according to the principles of the Theory of Semantic Change (Lopez, 2015: 167). As Lopez interpreted the phraseological process can be lacunar as phraseological meaning can be opaque along with source meaning unclear. Phraseological units demonstrate the ideal “test bench” proving the validity of the Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic Change. As Lopes finds (2015: 174) phraseological units carry a heavier semantic load, thus the conventionalized implicatures can be fully comparable to other linguistic elements. The archaic expression like down the pike (194 COCA results) turned into other more evident etymology changing into down the pipe (69 COCA results), the setexpression American Idiot (COCA, NEWS, 2016, OCRegister) returns 84 results in COCA engine that were presupposedly borrowed from the idiomatic expression the American Patriot with 46 COCA results.
Sometimes it happens when the origin of the word / term is borrowed from Latin or Greek, or from other foreign languages, cf.: tele-collection. The neologism is exploring mimesis and looks like the old term, but it is completely brand new conceptual unit like - ism shifts into abstract nouns, cf.: Trumpism (55 units in COCA search). Traces of old terms are iterated by the new second-hand users who have disguised new collocations as pseudo-terms as in Trumpism of the Day where the neological unit Trumpism occurs. MWU can be polyfuctional, thus the one meaning has to dominate contextually, Cf.: JFK (2207 units in Frequency rate) as (1) Junior Fellowship Kidz, or as Junk Food Kitty (796 entries for Junk Food), or (2) Jihads For Kerry, John Fitzgerald Kennedy as in (3) the JFK assassination (58 frequency rate) (COCA, 2017, NEWS, Chicago Sun-Times); (4) John F. Kennedy = John F Kennedy International Airport (erasure of the word airport) (COCA, 2017, SPOK, NPR: Planet Money).
Picture 1. JFK variation: Junk Food Kitty, JFK assassination, John F Kennedy International Airport
The Phraseological MWUs are secondary units that are in comparison with free expressions have stable indirect meaning, can be described as highly figurative, metaphoric, being stick together in the preserved collocation, e.g.: Early bird catches the worm. Still, these secondary units can be modified, and changed into the post-secondary, tertiary, undergo fourth change and beyond, cf.: (1) There's an early bird buy-one, get-one-free special, (2) to work the early bird on Friday, (3) with early bird discounts, (4) the Early Bird Detective Agency, (5) moderate early bird, (6) with early bird dinner specials, (7) early bird bingo, etc.
According to Mieder (2009: 77) the phraseological units and felicities are often used to demonstrate argumentation strategies for they are easy-to-understand expressions and demonstrate persuasive argument by able-to-get way with conclusive proof supported by metaphors and popular phraseology, cf.: (1) “ Opportunity doesn't come easy ”, (2) “One man cannot make a movement”, (3) “A new politics for the new time ”. Some set-phrases, collocations and proverbs make politician's speech popular (cf. Obama's proverbial Rhetoric in “Yes, we can”” (2009)), other fading away (2009: 161). As Mieder states (1993: 209) proverbs like: “A woman's tongue wags like a lamb's tail” or “Spare the rod and spoil the child” have disappeared or are on their way out while such proverbs as “A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle” or “There is no free lunch” are steadily gaining incurrency. Some proverbs are rearranged: “Use it or lose it”, “Pay as you go” and “lipstick on a pig” (1993: 83).
The proverbs are seen as traditional signs of cultural values. The linguists have studied proverbs to observe expressions of national wisdom to change and reoccur (Mieder, 1993: 205). The new proverbs as they emerge illustrate new values:
Nothing but money is sweeter than honey. Banks have no hearts,
and Money makes the mare go but not the nightmare.
Old shoes and old friends are best. Mud thrown is ground lost.
Friendship can't stand on one leg alone.
You have to summer and winter together before you know each other. (Mieder, 1993: 228) The secondary units or all rearranged units on the one hand have some similar traces, demonstrating mimesis; on the other hand, they have some vivid formal replacements or semantic change or multiple semantic or other changes as in artifact rearrangements, cf.: Diamonds Are A Girl's Best Friend introduced by Carol Channing, vivified in other tributes.
The term “law of Hobson-Jobson”” is used in linguistics to define the process of phonological change when loan words can be adapted to the phonology rules of a new language. This term indicates that words are changing in appearance as the Spanish cucaracha becoming English “cockroach””, and English “riding coat”” becoming French redingote. The secondary term that shifted from Hobson-Johnson is Hanklyn-Janklin demonstrated mimesis to the earlier term denoting the contemporary glossary of Indian English terms and Indian-derived words in mainstream English by Nigel Hankin, named as a tribute to its 1886 forebear Hobson-Jobson (Purcell, 2009).
Multi-word units correspond to one grammatical phrase constituted by several lexemes separated by a blank (Bolly, 2009: 9). They differ from free combinations, whose constituents keep their syntactic and semantic independence, and from compounds, which are morphologically made up of two elements, having independent status outside these word combinations. Often MWUs alter their sense while entering other linguistic area. The borrowed set of expressions appear in different areas like “ two peas in a pod” in different areas: translations (retranslations), film industry (remakes), arts (repetitive copies, recopies, similar replicas), in internet (related videos), in marketing (mimetism representations as celebrity imitation in appearance, clothes or manners, twinsumers TWINSUMER trend: consumers don't connect to “just any other consumer” anymore; they are looking for the most relevant of their taste “twins”. etc.).
When MWUs are the terms that considerably differ in two languages or when a term exists in one language only, there are three basic techniques for reproducing the term in another language: borrowing, creating new term and creating equivalent paraphrase (Arntz, 1993: 15).
The use of a loan word, i.e. the direct coining of a term from another language, is indicated when the content of the term is especially typical for the area in which the source language is spoken and is therefore difficult to translate (e.g. drugstore in North America and ombudsman in Sweden). That language usage is by no means restricted to the case shown by word Engl. Know-how, Ukr. nou-khau and very many others which were taken over into Ukrainian unchanged. A loan translation (e.g. Engl. contact lenses, Ukr. kontaktni linzy) can facilitate the comprehension of a term which is unknown in the area in which the target language is spoken: however, this requires a motivated term in the source.
According to conceptual change theory the semantic change is like “rearranging nodes in the network” which needs addition or deletion some links and nodes, involving restructuring and replacing the whole conceptual networks (Pavel 1993: 22). The other important issue of MWUs transfer and words' migration from one language into other, from one sphere into another: e.g. the term reproducibility from biology migrates to linguistics, the term nonlinear dynamics used by linguistics in synergetic approaches.
MWUs change in headings changing their meaning, in film's names, e.g.: “Men prefer blondes””. Creating sequels of books and numerous screen versions provide lacunar prototypical copies, relic or artifact parodies, such as “Casino Royale”” (1967).
New versions are not worthy without comparison to older ones. Translation and a new film are always intertextual. The intertextuality is a “right hand” of semantic lacunarity. Artifact, where you can find the gaps, is incomplete with respect to its real or virtual prototype. Memory and Identity can be both lost in “Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind” (King 2013). When something is lost in translation, it must be the identity of the original.
Among the most important factors of MWUs transfer and reproducibility are creativity and mimesis (Pavel, 1993: 30). Some characteristics of MWUs can be observed in scientific discourse, corpus data, and wide context search engines. The neos of MWUs show the lexical creativity as Pavel states: “concept-theme feedback loops display remarkable similarities” to the original MWUs in comparison to the post secondary MWUs (1993: 30). The current best new words (hybrid compounds) in American English are the challenges to translation, e.g.: masterdating, nonversation, cellfish, errorist, internest, chairdrobe, afterclap (New Modern random words). These rearranged MWUs are highly frequent and rather colloquial.
2. Results
2.1 Frequency Data Analysis and Concordance Search for MWUs: the Current Usage
The MWU is a good precedential turn of phrase, then the frequency of usage rises and the felicity turns into the stable collocation fixed in speech, then in writing, in fiction, magazine, academic discourse with different rate of occurrence, cf.: (1) time flies so quickly (COCA 1996, CBS SPOKEN), (2) time flies like an arrow (COCA 2009, FIC Analog), (3) time flies by anyway (COCA 1997, NEWS, SanFrancChron).
Syntactic “fixedness” relates to the degree of grammatical rigidity or frozenness of the unit, including constraints on syntactic order and transformational deficiencies of the MWU under study: “a sequence is considered syntactically fixed if it does not allow any of the combinatory or transformational possibilities that are typical of this kind of sequence” (Bolly, 2009: 9).
Metaphorical and metonymic multi-word combinations are typical cases of semantic opacity. “Lexical restrictions” relate to the degree to which there are constraints on the “commutability” of the MWU's constituents. That is, PUs show “preferred lexical realizations” on the paradigmatic axis: they display arbitrary lexico-grammatical restrictions in restraining possibilities of paradigmatic substitution of one constituent for another (quasi) synonymic item.
Then, after pushing “Find matching string” you are getting 100 collocations represented in the frequency of usage order in the next page by the KWIC concordance examples (short textual illustration) to each set expression like or down the gauntlet. The meaning shifted from MWUs can be seen as modified phraseological unit, cf.: The Republicans in the House have thrown down the gauntlet (COCA, 2013, SPOK PBS).
Alongside this restricted interpretation of phraseology in “phraseological approach”, there is another way of defining it, which Catherine Bolly refers to as the “frequency-based approach” as she gave her expanded definition of phraseology which can be seen as “frequently occurring syntagmatic combinations” revealed by corpus linguistic analyses (Bolly 2009: 10). In order to follow the change of the phraseological unit we rely on search engine of COCA to find similar collocations with the structure “down the [* N]”, for instance: “down the drain”.
This corpus-based approach enabled the researcher to consider the advanced learner variety from a new perspective, in terms of overuse, underuse, and misuse. The combined method of investigation highlighted a striking difference in phraseological behaviour between high-frequency MWUs in available dictionaries and in corpora data.
The constant change and modification of free and fixed expressions are given by dictionaries and corpora data also having data presented by styles (Magazine (MAG), Academic (ACAD), fiction (FIC), other items in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), Cf.: (1) Blue Beard - a man who marries and kills his wives (Longman, 129), (2 Blue Beard: PHOTO (COLOR), 1991, pastel, 13 1/2 x 13 (COCA, AmerArtist 1992), (3) portrait as Blue Beard (COCA, 1992, AmerArtist), (4) original story of Blue Beard (COCA, 1992, AmerArtist), (5) rewriting of Blue Beard, Carter story as a repeat performance of Blue Beard (COCA, 1992, AmerArtist).
Due to the quantitative analysis of the corpus data by to the “Clusters” and “Collocates” tools of the OxfordWordsmith Tools 4.0 concordancer our preliminary analysis reveals (a non-significant) difference in the frequency of use of some recurrent sequences and collocational combinations in the native and non-native corpora. Some MWUs may be avoided (underuse) and some well-known MWUs may be overgeneralized (overused). The deviant production related to the word semiosis in the native area of the term. For instance, in America it is not popular to use old forms of words, so the paper-and-pencil game (now electronic also), where we put O or X in nine squares trying to win a row of three O's or X's was changed from Noughts and Crosses (OXO) (BrEngl) into Tick-tack-toe (AmEngl) derived from “tick-tack”, both with possible roots to the ancient Egypt game. The expression Noughts and Crosses is not available at COCA. The word nought is the old form of the word zero, rarely used in American English according to the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), giving totally 72 results for Academic discourse (5), precisely: ACAD/Theological Studies (2), ACAD/PublicLaw (1), ACAD/Current Phsycology (1), ACAD/ArtBulletin (1), FIC (51), MAG (9), NEWS (3), SPOKEN (1). This change demonstrates how thematic variation preserves the conceptual stability (Pavel, 1993: 21).
“Non-compositionality” relates to the degree to which the phraseological unit is semantically opaque and often lacunar. A string of words is considered to be partially non- compositional when the meaning of at least one of its constituents no longer corresponds to its prototypical or literal meaning. One can consider the meaning of a combination of words to be totally “non-compositional” when “the meaning arising from word-by-word interpretation of the string does not yield to the institutionalized, accepted, unitary meaning of the string” (Moon, 1998: 8).
3. Discussion
The last three above-mentioned internal features of PUs (syntactic, semantic and lexical criteria) should be considered in terms of continua. In other words, this would mean that there are degrees of syntactic fixedness, semantic non-compositionality and lexical restrictions, and that this variability differs from one PU to another. Combining these three graded criteria on one scale should thus arguably make it possible to classify word combinations from the freest to the most phraseological (Bolly, 2009: 24).
As the extraction in COCA of MWUs, PUs and non-fixed bigrams, trigrams and Ngrams demonstrate that the contemporary language can be verified to the corpus-based approaches, which are important for non-native English speakers and TEFL. We find the other worthy corpora as BYU - BNC (the British corpus), Strathy (Canadian corpus), iWEB or standalone corpora like LOCNESS to dig in the further research for the sake of corpus and applied linguistics.
Conclusions
The shifted MWUs demonstrate high frequency usage due to the Corpus based Analysis and Concordance Search, provided by COCA. The semantic shift of MWUs, setphrases and idioms deviations take place at all levels of the contemporary discourse: in Fiction, Academic, Spoken, News, and Magazine. In order to eliminate the informative lacunae of the modified MWUs in the secondary and post-secondary deviations there is provided to use compare and contrast tool, wide context tool, idiomatic search engines, etymological background analysis enabling to reconstruct the intra- and inter- change of the formal level and semantic shift of the inner modifications bringing home the message.
The analysis of corpus data and concordance illustrations in COCA showed how phraseological units were slightly changed and modified by means of the secondary (subsequent) semantic deviation. Many MWUs in the analyzed corpora (Spoken and Magazine, News in the modern AmEnglish endozones) were high-frequency collocations of deviant nature extracted comparing with their non-deviant MWUs usually learnt while learning in the English class. This is the reason why neology and phraseology are better learned and taught at the university level, where language classes, the self-education and corpus analysis can be integrally engaged.
The detailed study has revealed that most errors concerned the misuse of MWUs in TEFL are explained not by out-date resources EFL users use, but due to the rapid semantic change of MWUs making neology or rethought winged phrases or idioms in the real time regime, what is affirmed by corpora data from the current spoken, academic and magazine discourses. Some other questions concerning MWUs change, modification and transfer remain open to debate.
References
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