Possible worlds of a literary text character: a cognitive and quantitative linguistic approach

Louis XI--Maоtre Pierre [54 predicates]

/+/ [32]: spiritual/mental characteristics [21]: pious [7]: “I am doing penance,” said Maоtre Pierre, “and may not eat anything before noon, save some comfiture and a cup of water” (Scott, n.d.); “God keeps in his right hand”--he said, crossing himself devoutly (Scott, n.d.); amiable [4]: while thus engaged, Maоtre Pierre's countenance expressed a kind of good humour almost amounting to benevolence (Scott, n.d.); wise [2]: I am vieuxroutier, and none of those upon whom feigned disorders pass for apologies (Scott, n.d.); just [2]: “I owe you a breakfast for the wetting which my mistake procured you. It is the penance of my offence towards you” (Scott, n.d.); modest [2]: “I deal in no titles. A plain man, that can live on mine own good--that is my designation” (Scott, n.d.); generous [2]: generous and liberal in his actions (Scott, n.d.); masterful [1]: Maоtre Pierre said, in the tone of one accustomed to be obeyed (Scott, n.d.); dignified [1]: with an attitude of more dignity than he had yet seen (Scott, n.d.); financial state [4]: rich [4]: as he spoke, he took a large purse from his bosom, made of the fur of the sea otter, and streamed a shower of small silver pieces into the goblet, until the cup, which was but a small one, was more than half full (Scott, n.d.); mode evaluation [2]: inspires respect [1]: a man of respectable appearance (Scott, n.d.); attractive [1]: the expression of this man's countenance was partly attractive (Scott, n.d.); actions [2]: agent [2]: makes others obey him [2]: “this is not the first time Maоtre Pierre has found the true way to make gentlefolks serve at his beck” (Scott, n.d.); emotive evaluation [1]: remarkable: remarkable (Scott, n.d.); age [1]: advanced in years: the eldest and most remarkable of these men (Scott, n.d.); property [1]: owns a plantation of mulberry trees: “you might see the rows of mulberry trees as you came hither, all planted by Maоtre Pierre's command, to feed the silk worms” (Scott, n.d.).

/0/ [2]: physical characteristics [2]: has bushy eyebrows [2]: under the shroud of thick black eyebrows (Scott, n.d.).

/-/ [20]: spiritual/mental characteristics [9]: severeand rude [8]: ordinary sharp, caustic, and severe character (Scott, n.d.); sharp and scornful in language (Scott, n.d.); mercenary [1]: eyes twinkled with the love of gain (Scott, n.d.); physical characteristics [3]: has hollow eyes [2]: those same sunken eyes (Scott, n.d.); has hollow cheeks [1]: sunk cheeks (Scott, n.d.); appearance [3]: modest in attire [3]: the fashion of the dress was close and short, a kind of garment which was not then held decorous among gentry (Scott, n.d.); miserly dress (Scott, n.d.); voice [3]: harsh [3]: harsh, caustic, and unpleasing voice (Scott, n.d.); psychic state [1]: feels contempt: Maоtre Pierre, in whom the bravado of the young gallant seemed only to excite laughter, more scornful than applausive (Scott, n.d.); mode evaluation [1]: disgusting: the expression of this man's countenance was partly forbidding (Scott, n.d.).

This is the disguise in which the King likes to appear to strangers (in the story, to the main character), so he tries to impress them. He pretends to be a pious and rich, but unobtrusive and modest merchant. And it is no wonder that his attempts result in creating a favorable image - 59% of positive predicates, that outnumber negative (37%) and neutral (4%) ones.

Louis XI--astrologist Galeotti's disciple [31 predicates]

/+/ [18]: spiritual/mental characteristics [17]: pious [7]: wherefore do we, the Princes of the earth, found churches and monasteries, make pilgrimages, undergo penances, and perform devotions (Scott, n.d.); he laid his hat on the table, and devoutly kneeling before the images stuck into the hat band (Scott, n.d.); wise [3]: I know that thou art well sensible that the path of royal policy cannot be always squared (as that of private life ought invariably to be) by the abstract maxims of religion and of morality (Scott, n.d.); respectful [3]: Louis termed him his friend, his father in the sciences--the glass by which a king should look into distant futurity--and concluded by thrusting on his finger a ring of very considerable value (Scott, n.d.); frugal [2]: my ears and my palate have no such niceness (Scott, n.d.); resolute [1]: we are determined to hazard something, even in our own person, to stop these anti-Christian wars (Scott, n.d.); believes in the power of science [1]: this new fashioned art of multiplying manuscripts by the intervention of machinery (Scott, n.d.); mode evaluation [1]: inspires amity: he and the King took leave, for once much satisfied with each other (Scott, n.d.).

/-/ [13]: spiritual/mental characteristics [11]: greedy [5]: economical even in his superstitions, Louis conceived the Astrologer sufficiently bound to his service by the pensions he had assigned him, and thought himself entitled to the use of his skill at a moderate rate, even upon great exigencies (Scott, n.d.); ten pieces! a pittance which I am half ashamed to offer to Toinette, to buy her new breast laces (Scott, n.d.); has a propensity for occultism [5]: he desires to know what day will be propitious for the execution of such a purpose; also what is likely to be the success of such a negotiation, and whether his adversary will be moved to answer the confidence thus reposed in him, with gratitude and kindness, or may rather be likely to abuse the opportunity and advantage which such meeting may afford him (Scott, n.d.); sly [1]: the King paused, without giving any farther indication how far this presaging speech squared with his real object (Scott, n.d.); psychic state [2]: depressed [2]: silent and passive (Scott, n.d.).

As the analyzed data reveal, “the astrologist's disciple” is described by 58% positively charged and 42% negatively charged predicates. Here, the king manifests seemingly incompatible qualities - piety and propensity for occultism. Although he appears to show respect to the old astrologist, Louis is never too generous in paying him.

Louis XI--a defendant on trial [21 predicates]

/+/ [17]: spiritual/mental characteristics [13]: can conceal real emotions [5]: the composure of his demeanour had an evident effect upon his rival (Scott, n.d.); pious [3]: as of a holy and humble motion,” said the King, “which doubtless comes I will swear to observe them upon the holy relique which I have ever the grace to bear about my person, being a fragment of the true cross (Scott, n.d.); frugal [2]: the meanness of his dress (Scott, n.d.); compliant [2]: I will grant you as fair terms as for very shame's sake you ought to ask in my present condition, without making yourself the fable of Christendom (Scott, n.d.); dignified [1]: remained standing with an air of dignity (Scott, n.d.); psychic state [4]: cheerful [3]: a merry companion (Scott, n.d.); confident [1]: he seemed to make a triumphant appeal to all present, upon the testimony borne to his innocence in the Countess's reply (Scott, n.d.).

/-/ [4]: spiritual/mental characteristics [3]: sly [2]: since a King must plead his cause as an accused person he cannot desire more distinguished judges than the flower of nobleness and muster and pride of chivalry (Scott, n.d.); cruel [1]: “he must die,” answered Louis in the same tone, “dead men tell no tales” (Scott, n.d.); psychic state [1]: uneasy: a transient fit of paleness across the King's cheek (Scott, n.d.).

As we can see, being accused and tried, the King conceals his true feelings pretending to be pious and ready for concessions to impress his enemies and move the jury to mercy. As a result, 81% of predicates are positively charged, and only 19% have negative connotations.

Louis XI--the commander of the Scottish guard [12 predicates]

/+/ [11]: spiritual/mental characteristics [10]: skillful general [7]: the conduct of Louis, on the other hand, was that of a calm, collected, sagacious leader, who neither sought nor avoided danger, but showed so much self-possession and sagacity (Scott, n.d.); proud of his soldiers [3]: “my trusty Scots! ” said the King as he looked upon this melancholy spectacle (Scott, n.d.); actions [1]: agent: acts in the interests of the guard: I must instantly to the Duke. He must be convinced of our good faith at this critical moment, or we shall have both Liegeois and Burgundians upon us at once (Scott, n.d.).

/-/ [1]: psychic state [1]: feels remorse: to aggravate the King's painful feelings, he saw, as he crossed the courtyard, one or two bodies, over each of which had been hastily flung a military cloak (Scott, n.d.).

The analyzed data show Louis as a skilled military leader who is proud of his Scottish Archers and does everything to protect them. No wonder that 92% of predicates describing the King in this possible world are assessed positively.

Louis XI--the offended monarch [12 predicates]

/+/ [8]: psychic state [5]: cheerful [3]: said Louis, laughing (Scott, n.d.); optimistic [1]: trusting that a future day would bring him amends (Scott, n.d.); self-possessed [1]: said Louis, affecting unconcern (Scott, n.d.); financial state [2]: rich [2]: the King produced a weighty bag of money (Scott, n.d.); actions [1]: agent: acts in the interests of the country: subjugating his paternal feelings to the necessities of state (Scott, n.d.).

/-/ [4]: psychic state [2]: offended [2]: although he was sensible to the indignity of serving with his noblest peers under the banners of his own vassal (Scott, n.d.); spiritual/mental characteristics [1]: cruel: I would set the dogs on him to bait him out of it (Scott, n.d.); actions [1]: agent: takes revenge: with a smile of gratified vengeance (Scott, n.d.).

In this possible world, Louis pretends to be a sovereign who suffers undeserved injuries, so his psychic state comes to the front. Yet, he dissembles his hurt feelings and tries to do what is best for his country. Such features of the King win him two-thirds of positively charged predicates.

Secondary possible worlds

Louis XI--the vantage point of Burgundians [27 predicates]

/+/ [11]: mode evaluation [8]: inspires respect [6]: many, as we have mentioned, had already experienced the bounty of the King (Scott, n.d.); he was certainly now possessed with sentiments much more favourable to Louis than when he entered the apartment (Scott, n.d.); inspires trust [2]: the arrival of the King restored confidence between France and Burgundy (Scott, n.d.); actions [3]: agent [3]: acts in the interests of the country [3]: to establish a fair and equitable treaty between the countries, with such security on the King's part as should make it difficult for him to break his faith, or disturb the internal peace of Burgundy in the _ future (Scott, n.d.).

/-/ [16]: mode evaluation [10]: causes dislike [4]: I could pardon all his duplicity, but cannot forgive his supposing me capable of the gross folly of being duped by his professions (Scott, n.d.); pronounces you false and faithless (Scott, n.d.); causes suspicion [4]: my mother always told me to go warily near an old rat in a trap, for he was never so much disposed to bite (Scott, n.d.); causes mockery [2]: will but change my dress, as this is scarce a fitting trim in which to wait on my most gracious Sovereign. With a deep and bitter emphasis on the last expression, the Duke arose and strode out of the room (Scott, n.d.); spiritual/mental characteristics [6]: unduly trustful [3]: I have not taken away our kinsman Louis's crown, which he was ass enough to put into our power (Scott, n.d.); sly [3]: it is in no degree different from the evasive replies which have already been returned to his just complaints (Scott, n.d.).

According to the analyzed data, Burgundians assess the King mostly negatively (59% of predicates), rightly taking Louis for what he is - a sly and suspicious politician who deserves mockery. However, there are some people among them who he managed to deceive inspiring respect and trust, or making them consider Louis a foolish simpleton.

Louis XI--the vantage point of the Scottish guard [15 predicates]

/+/ [15]: spiritual/mental characteristics [13]: wise [10]: it is a sagacious monarch (Scott, n.d.); it is the wisest prince that ever put purple on his back (Scott, n.d.); skillful monarch [2]: it is an art this French King of ours has found out, to fight with other men's swords, and to wage his soldiers out of other men's purses (Scott, n.d.); brave [1]: Louis had shown great personal bravery during the battle of Montl'hery (Scott, n.d.); actions [2]: patient [2]: people serve him loyally [1]: he did not yet conceive himself at liberty to betray any trust which Louis had reposed (Scott, n.d.); he is glorified [1]: long live the King of France! (Scott, n.d.).

The analysis shows that the members of the Scottish guard have an exclusively positive image of their chief. The archers serve him loyally because they consider him a wise and skillful king deserving glorification.

Louis XI--the vantage point of astrologist Galeotti [13 predicates]

/-/ [13]: spiritual/mental characteristics [11]: naпve [6]: doth he think I am to abide in this old castle like a bullfinch in a cage, fain to sing as oft as he chooses to whistle, and all for seed and water? (Scott, n.d.); He that contemns art shall perish through his own ignorance (Scott, n.d.); greedy [5]: the niggardly slave (Scott, n.d.); a coxswain's wife would give more to know that her husband had crossed the narrow seas in safety (Scott, n.d.); mode evaluation [2]: causes dislike [1]: The indignation of the Astrologer was extreme (Scott, n.d.).

As we see, Louis' teacher has a totally negative image of his disciple who pays him little and naively hopes that Galeotti will serve him for a miserly salary.

Louis XI--the vantage point of the citizens of Liege [5 predicates]

/+/ [5]: actions [5]: patient [5]: he is glorified [5]: Louis, the guardian of the liberties of Liege! (Scott, n.d.); Long live Louis of France! (Scott, n.d.).

The people of Liege consider Louis their liberator who came to free their city from the rule of the Duke of Burgundy and glorify him for that.

Louis XI--the vantage point of the Countesses of Croye [5 predicates]

/-/ [4]: mode evaluation [4]: causes reproach [2]: the Countess turned her eyes to the King as she spoke, with a look which was probably intended as a reproach (Scott, n.d.); causes dislike [1]: most unamiable character (Scott, n.d.); causes resentment [1]: the Ladies of Croye, although internally resenting the ungenerous and discourteous manner in which Louis thus deprived them of the promised asylum in his Court (Scott, n.d.).

The Countesses (mother and daughter) of Croye experience completely negative feelings towards the King, who uses them as pawns in his political rivalry with the Duke of Burgundy.

Conclusions

The analyzed data allow for the following inferences:

In Quentin Durward, Walter Scott presented Louis XI in 15 possible worlds the majority of which are primary (10 out of 15). Predicates that characterize the King in primary worlds also dominate (541 vs 65). Evidently, the author prefers to describe Louis directly, while his portrayal from the vantage point of other characters is auxiliary.

The typical aspect of Louis' image stressed both in primary and secondary possible worlds is his spiritual/mental characteristics (69% of all predicates). In some primary worlds, though, the King's psychic state comes to the forefront, which helps to disclose his personality when he is kept prisoner (42% of predicates) or puts on an air of an offended monarch (58%). In secondary possible worlds, a third of all predicates are related to mode evaluation, so the vantage point of other characters is essentially represented via emotions and feelings the King excites in them. A peculiar trend was detected in describing the actions of Louis. While in primary possible worlds he is always an agent (performs the actions himself), in his secondary worlds the King is presented as a patient who the actions of other characters are directed at.

More than a quarter of all predicates (27%) refer to the holistic image of Louis, which makes it pivotal for characterizing the King. Moreover, this is the only primary possible world where Louis XI has a pointedly negative assessment (two-thirds of his descriptions are negatively charged). In most other possible worlds, the King's overall assessment is positive, which is achieved via the ratio of respective predicates ranging from 92% (the commander of the Scottish guard) to 58% (astrologist Galeotti's disciple). In two primary possible worlds (the prisoner and the host), there is an approximate balance of positive and negative predicates with a slight prevalence of the former.

The axiological structure of secondary possible worlds is rather contrastive. His Scottish Archers and the citizens of Liege have a totally positive opinion of the King, whereas other characters see him mostly (the Burgundians) or absolutely (astrologist Galeotti and the Countesses of Croye) in the negative light. Evidently, being biased either way, the characters of the novel tend to discern only those features of Louis that conform to their overall positive/negative perception of him.

On the whole, the image of Louis XI in Quentin Durward is axiologically balanced, with a slight prevalence of positively charged descriptions (54%), thus making him a normal person with his fortes and shortcomings. Having painted a negative portrait of the King of France at the outset of the novel, the author then softens this “first impression” as if hinting that Louis, sometimes even against his initial intentions, ultimately played a positive role in the fate of the main character bestowing upon a penniless but noble foreign mercenary a beautiful wife with a rich dowry and a large estate.

As for the features of Louis, the author mainly mentions his spiritual/mental characteristics to describe the protagonist. Among these, ten features are used in at least four possible worlds--five virtues (`pious', `frugal', `skillful', 'brave', `wise') and five vices (`greedy', `sly', `mercenary', `hypocritical', `cruel'), which makes Louis quite a controversial figure in the novel. Being equal in number, the most frequent positive and negative features differ in their coverage rate. The highest rate is manifested by `pious' and `wise' (47%), `sly' is somewhat lower (40%), `frugal' and `brave' have still lower rate (33%), and all the rest (`greedy', `skillful', `mercenary', `hypocritical', `cruel') have the lowest index (27%). Evidently, whatever guise the King puts upon himself, his core virtues (piety and wisdom) as well as his core vice (slyness) surface in almost half of them, making these features inalienable constituents of Louis' personality in general.

The author draws a rather different portrait of Louis XI judging by the mean frequency of these characteristics. According to this index, the King of France is shown first of all as a skillful expert in different fields (politics, state administration, the art of war) with the mean frequency of this feature equaling 10. His piety and hypocrisy are almost twice as rare (6 and 5, respectively). Next come Louis' wisdom (4.6), slyness (4.6), and cruelty (4). All other features display the mean frequency under 3.5. Such figures testify to the fact that the author considers the King to be an absolute fit for the role of a monarch. His competence and proficiency in performing royal duties are vindicated by a wide array of vital skills he possesses which, together with his hypocritical and sly nature as well as the wisdom of judgment and piety, make his image painted by Scott a paragon medieval ruler.

The prospects for further research in the field lie in studying the image of Louis XI in Quentin Durward within the framework of the theory of fictional characters, which considers the relations between historical figures and their images in literature.

Abbreviations

BPS - basic propositional schemas

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