Euphemisms as reflection of English mentality

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Rivne State University of the Humanities

Practice of English Language Department

Euphemisms as reflection of English mentality

Yu.V. Kuriata, Ph.D. in Psych., Ass.e Prof.

O.V. Kasatkina-Kubyshkina,

Ph.D. in Psych., Ass. Prof.

Annotation

The phenomenon of euphemisms has been considered in the article in the context of English mentality.

The definition of “mentality” has been drawn out. The language picture of the world as reflection of that language speakers' mentality has been enlarged on. The unique concepts for Anglo-Saxon language picture of the world specific to the mentality of the British and Americans (being less reflected in the later) have been pointed out in the context of the question considered in the article.

The definition of “euphemism” has been drawn out. The English euphemisms as linguistic and cultural phenomenon have been commented on as the means for the concept “understatement” as words or phrases used to avoid saying something presumably unpleasant or offensive. Such subject groups of English euphemisms have been analysed as: euphemisms mitigating various types of discrimination (age, property, racial and ethnic discrimination, discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities), euphemisms that reduce the superstitious fear of any phenomena, euphemisms that raise the prestige of a separate profession, euphemisms distracting from the negative phenomena of reality (those serving as a cover for aggressive hostilities and those mitigating negative consequences in the social and economic sphere), crime, gender, religion and death related euphemisms, miscellaneous group.

Key words: mentality, euphemism, linguistic concept, “understatement”, linguistic phenomenon, cultural phenomenon, connotation.

Àíîòàö³ÿ

Åâôåì³çìè ÿê â³äîáðàæåííÿ àíãë³éñüêî¿ ìåíòàëüíîñò³

Êóðÿòà Þ.Â., Êàñàòê³íà-Êóáèøê³íà Î.Â., ê. ïñèõ. í., äîöåíò êàôåäðè ïðàêòèêè àíãë³éñüêî¿ ìîâè, гâíåíñüêèé äåðæàâíèé ãóìàí³òàðíèé óí³âåðñèòåò

Ó ñòàòò³ ðîçãëÿíóòî ôåíîìåí åâôåì³çì³â â êîíòåêñò³ àíãë³éñüêî¿ ìåíòàëüíîñò³.

Âèçíà÷åíî ïîíÿòòÿ “ìåíòàë³òåò”. Ìîâíó êàðòèíó ñâ³òó ïðîàíàë³çîâàíî ÿê â³äîáðàæåííÿ ìåíòàë³òåòó íîñ³ÿ ìîâè. Âêàçàíî óí³êàëüí³ êîíöåïòè àíãëîñàêñîíñüêî¿ ìîâíî¿ êàðòèíè ñâ³òó â êîíòåêñò³ ï³äíÿòîãî ó ñòàòò³ ïèòàííÿ.

Âèâåäåíî ïîíÿòòÿ “åâôåì³çì”. Àíãë³éñüê³ åâôåì³çìè ÿê ë³íãâ³ñòè÷íèé òà êóëüòóðíèé ôåíîìåí ðîçãëÿíóòî â ÿêîñò³ çàñîáó êîíöåïòó “ïðèìåíøåííÿ” ó ìîâí³é êàðòèí³ ñâ³òó àíãë³éö³â òà (â ìåíø³é ì³ð³) àìåðèêàíö³â. Ïðîàíàë³çîâàíî òàê³ ãðóïè àíãë³éñüêèõ åâôåì³çì³â, ÿê: ùî ñòîñóþòüñÿ ð³çíîãî òèïó äèñêðèì³íàö³¿, åâôåì³çìè, ÿê³ çíèæóþòü çàáîáîííèé ñòðàõ ïåðåä ïåâíèìè ÿâèùàìè, åâôåì³çìè, ÿê³ ï³äí³ìàþòü ïðåñòèæ ïåâíèõ ïðîôåñ³é, åâôåì³çìè, ùî â³äâîë³êàþòü â³ä ïåâíèõ íåãàòèâíèõ ÿâèù ä³éñíîñò³, åâôåì³çìè, ÿê³ ñòîñóþòüñÿ çëî÷èííîñò³, ñòàò³, ðåë³ã³¿ òà ñìåðò³, à òàêîæ çá³ðíà ãðóïà îêðåìèõ âèïàäê³â âæèâàííÿ åâôåì³çì³â.

Êëþ÷îâ³ ñëîâà: ìåíòàëüí³ñòü, åâôåì³çì, ë³íãâ³ñòè÷íèé êîíöåïò, “ïðèìåíøåííÿ”, ë³íãâ³ñòè÷íèé ôåíîìåí, êóëüòóðíèé ôåíîìåí, êîíîòàö³ÿ.

Topicality

Mentality forms a way of vision of the world and concept of people as a totality of social-psychological features, automatisms and habits of consciousness [6, 157 p.]. It is generally agreed that mentality of English people is characterized by such features as tactfulness, politeness, reticence and others of this kind. As any other social phenomenon mentality is historically changeable but alteration occurs slowly in it. Languages (those that we call “living”) are undergoing changes in a similar slow but constant manner, reflecting in themselves ways of thinking and world perception of their speakers, i.e. features of their mentality as well as other aspects. The amount of data on the English mentality is quite abundant and is still increasing. Nevertheless, in the context of euphemisms as its reflection it requires further research, especially considering modern euphemisms, which are of the biggest interest as they are just coming to life and can be best traced via mass media.

Thus, analysis of euphemisms as reflection of English mentality regarding different spheres of present-day life is the objective of the article.

Recent researchers and publications. D. Crystal, R. Fawler, K. Fox, A. Jioeva, B. Johnstone, V. Liubchak can be mentioned among the researchers of the question of English mentality and euphemisms as linguistic and cultural phenomenon in its context [3-8].

Results

Mentality has many aspects reflected in modern science: it is viewed as interrelated psychological reactions by social psychologists, generalized way of perception of the world, the manner of thinking and feeling by historians, semantic matrix, predetermined meaningful reactions of cultural subject by sociolinguists. Generally speaking, apart from already mentioned tactfulness, politeness, reticence mentality of English people as a unity of behavioral and mental patterns embraces such features as being compliant and patient to other people, expressing respect during conversations. euphemism language world ånglish mentality

The linguistics emphasizes the role of language in studying mentality, as its subject is shown in verbal language (verbal culture of a society) and a sign language, in behavior, customs, traditions and beliefs [3, p. 211-214]. From the linguistic point of view mentality is reflected in the language picture of the world through its unique concepts. As A. Jioeva points it out, “understatement”, “privacy”, “stiff upper lip”, “commitment”, “challenge” and others are such concepts for Anglo-Saxon language picture of the world. She proves that concept “understatement” is notably specific to the mentality of the British and Americans yet being less reflected in the later [1, p. 117-125; 7, 151 p.]. It emphasizes not so much the fact of reticence, the concealment of information, but the insufficient expression of the evaluative component in the statement. R. Fawler points it out that understatement is used “not to deceive, but to enhance the impression of the hearer, i.e., to impress by moderation” [5, 145 p.].

The English euphemisms as linguistic and cultural phenomenon can be treated as the means for this concept. A. Hornby dictionary gives the definition of euphemism as “use of other (mild, vague and indirect) words or phrases in place of what is required by truth or accuracy” [10]. It is “the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant” by Merriam-Webster's dictionary [9]. B. Johnstone says that euphemism is “the use of a supposedly less objectionable variant for a word with negative connotations” [8, 336 p.]. Simply put, there are some words and topics which are not supposed to be mentioned directly in various cultures. To avoid the negative meanings and connotations of the words and subjects, euphemisms are employed. Mostly, euphemisms encompass such subjects as religion, politics, sex, different social negative phenomena, death, diseases etc.

As it has been mentioned above, euphemisms are culture-specific and to some extent a euphemism is a reflection of culture. Different history, social customs, values, religions, and moral standards cause the use of euphemisms that vary from culture to culture. Cultural differences will lead to dissimilar form and content of euphemistic expressions in various languages [2, 516 p.]. Depending on from which culture a text is translated to which culture, the amount of using euphemisms could change [4, 212 p.]. Thus, the whole idea of a euphemism as a word or phrase used to avoid saying some unpleasant or offensive word wholly corresponds to the English mentality concept of “understatement” as people tend to use this figure of speech in their interactions to show politeness and to soften definite realia considering which people may become emotionally vulnerable.

The general classification of euphemisms by subject groups that are considered in the article can be presented in the form of a table:

Table 1

Thematic classification of English euphemisms

The following examples of euphemisms related to any type of discrimination can be listed to illustrate this group: “middlescence”, “third age”, “senior”, “mature” instead of “old” - age discrimination (in Ukrainian it can be rendered as: “ñåðåäíüîãî â³êó” - “òðåòüîãî â³êó” - “ñòàðøèé” - “çð³ëèé” - “ñòàðèé”); “economically exploited”, “low-income”, “differently advantaged” in place of “poor” - property discrimination (“åêîíîì³÷íî åêñïëóàòîâàíèé” - “ç íèçüêèì ïðèáóòêîì” - “ç ³íøèìè ïåðåâàãàìè” - “á³äíèé”); “person of colour” for “black” - racial and ethnic discrimination (“ëþäèíà êîëüîðó” - “÷îðíèé”); “physically challenged”, “special” in place of “invalid” - discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities (“³ç ô³çè÷íèìè âèêëèêàìè”

- “îñîáëèâèé” - “³íâàë³ä”).

Considering subgroup “property discrimination” in more details we can see change in emotional gradation of the word chosen for the definite phenomenon throughout historical timeline: “poor” got substituted by “disadvantaged”, later by “economically disadvantaged” to be more politically correct (possible Ukrainian interpretation: “á³äí³” - “ïîçáàâëåí³ ìîæëèâîñòåé/ïåðåâàã”

- “åêîíîì³÷íî îáìåæåí³ â ñâî¿õ ìîæëèâîñòÿõ”). Sometimes “underprivileged” or “socially deprived” can be heard in this case (“ïîçáàâëåí³ ïðèâ³ëåé” - “ñîö³àëüíî îáìåæåí³”).

Among other examples from this subgroup, we can mention “unwaged” used instead of “unemployed” (“ò³, ùî íå îòðèìóþòü çàðïëàòó” - “áåçðîá³òí³”); “substandard housing” for “slums” (“æèòëî, ùî íå â³äïîâ³äຠñòàíäàðòàì” - “íåòð³”); “refuse collectors” in place of “bin man” (“òîé, õòî çáèðຠðå÷³, â³ä ÿêèõ â³äìîâèëèñü” “ëþäèíà, ÿêà êîïèðñàºòüñÿ â ñì³òíèêó”).

The same emotional gradation of the words chosen for racial / ethnic phenomena that may sound offensive for definite groups of people in English culture can be traced in the corresponding subgroup - “euphemisms mitigating racial and ethnic discrimination”. “Negro / Niger” that were originally used on both sides of the Atlantic before victory of antiracist movement got substituted by “coloured”, “black”, “African American / Afro-American”, “member of African diaspora”, “indigenous person” (“íåãð / í³ãåð” - “êîëüîðîâèé” - “÷îðíèé” - “àôðèêàíñüêèé àìåðèêàíåöü / àôðîàìåðèêàíåöü” - “÷ëåí àôðèêàíñüêî¿ ä³àñïîðè” - “êîð³ííèé æèòåëü”); “Native Americans” is used for “Red Indians” (“êîð³íí³ æèòåë³” - “÷åðâîíîøê³ð³ ³íä³éö³”); “Native Alaskan” is heard in place of “Eskimo” (“êîð³íí³ æèòåë³ Àëÿñêè” - “åñê³ìîñè”); “indigenous population” is said instead of “natives” (“êîð³ííå íàñåëåííÿ” - “ì³ñöåâå íàñåëåííÿ”); “newcomers” is preferred to “foreigners” (“íîâîïðèáóë³” - “³íîçåìö³”).

In the subgroup “discrimination against persons with physical or mental disabilities” we can also see this change in emotional gradation of the word chosen for the definite phenomenon throughout historical timeline. Among the examples: originally widely used word “invalid” got substituted by “handicapped”, then “disabled”, “differently-abled”, “physically challenged”, “physically different” (“³íâàë³ä” - “ç ô³çè÷íèìè / ðîçóìîâèìè íåäîë³êàìè” - “ïîêàë³÷åíèé” - “ç ³íøèìè ìîæëèâîñòÿìè” - “ëþäèíà, ÿêà äîëຠòðóäíîù³ ÷åðåç ñâ³é ô³çè÷íèé ñòàí” - “ô³çè÷íî â³äì³ííèé”); “aurally inconvenienced” is now sometimes preferred for “deaf” (“³ç ñëóõîâèìè íåçðó÷íîñòÿìè” - “ãëóõèé”); “unseeing” may be heard for “blind” (“íåñïðîìîæíèé áà÷èòè” - “ñë³ïèé”); “fat” is substituted by “big-boned”, “differently sized”, “horizontally challenged people” (“òîâñòèé”- “ç øèðîêîþ ê³ñòêîþ” - “ç ðîçì³ðîì, ùî â³äð³çíÿºòüñÿ” - “ëþäè, ÿê³ äîëàþòü òðóäíîù³ ÷åðåç ñâî¿ ãîðèçîíòàëüí³ ïðîïîðö³¿”); “hair-disadvantaged” can be used in place of “bald” (“ëèñèé” - “³ç íåäîë³êàìè ó âîëîñÿíîìó ïîêðèâ³”); “vertically challenged people” can be said instead of “short people” (“ëþäè, ÿê³ äîëàþòü òðóäíîù³ ÷åðåç ñâî¿ âåðòèêàëüí³ ïðîïîðö³¿” - “íèçüê³/êàðëèêè”). “Retarded children” now can be called ousted and “children with learning difficulties”, “learning disabled”, “special”, “mentally challenged people” is used instead (“ðîçóìîâî â³äñòàë³” - “ä³òè ³ç òðóäíîùàìè â íàâ÷àíí³” - “³ç â³äñóòí³ìè ìîæëèâîñòÿìè äî íàâ÷àííÿ” - “îñîáëèâ³” - “ëþäè, ÿê³ äîëàþòü òðóäíîù³, ïîâ'ÿçàí³ ç ¿õ ðîçóìîâèìè çä³áíîñòÿìè”). In this relation “mental hospital” is generally accepted for “insane asylum” (“ë³êàðíÿ äëÿ äóøåâíîõâîðèõ” - “ïñèõ³àòðè÷íà ë³êàðíÿ”).

Euphemisms that reduce the superstitious fear of any phenomena can be exemplified by “moonchild” for a person lacking skin pigmentation - “albino” (“ì³ñÿ÷íà äèòèíà” - “àëüá³íîñ”).

In the group “euphemisms that raise the prestige of a separate profession” we can find the following examples: “hairstylist” or “beautician” for “haircutter” (“ñòèë³ñò (ïî âîëîññþ)” - “êîñìåòîëîã (ïî âîëîññþ)” - “ïåðóêàð”), “funeral director” for “undertaker” (“äèðåêòîð ïîõîðîííîãî áþðî” - “ãðîá³âíèê”), “sanitation engineer” or even “environmental hygienist” for “garbage collector» or “janitor” (they can roughly be treated in Ukrainian as: “³íæåíåð ³ç ñàí³òà𳿔 - “ã³ã³ºí³ñò íàâêîëèøíüîãî ñåðåäîâèùà” - “çáèðà÷ ñì³òòÿ” - “äâ³ðíèê”).

In the group “euphemisms, distracting from the negative phenomena of reality” we find the following: “collateral damage” for “civilians killed accidentally by military action” (“ñóïóòí³ âòðàòè” - “öèâ³ëüí³, âèïàäêîâî âáèò³ ï³ä ÷àñ â³éñüêîâèõ ä³é”); “servicing the target” for “killing the enemy” (“ïîòðàïëÿííÿ â ö³ëü” - “çíèùåííÿ âîðîãà”); “emerging nations” for “third world countries” (“êðà¿íè, ùî ï³ä³éìàþòüñÿ” - “êðà¿íè òðåòüîãî ñâ³òó”); “involvement”, “device”, “air support”, “pacification” can be heard to serve as a cover for aggressive hostilities (“âòðó÷àííÿ” - “ïðîåêò/ïëàí” - “ïîâ³òðÿíà ï³äòðèìêà” - “ïðèìóøåííÿ äî ìèðó”); “period of economic adjustment”, “downsizing”, “negative cash flow” mitigating negative consequences in the socioeconomic sphere (“ïåð³îä åêîíîì³÷íî¿ àäàïòàö³¿” - “çìåíøåííÿ” - “íåãàòèâíèé ãðîøîâèé ïîò³ê”); “hospice” for “alms-house” or “poorhouse”, or “charity house” (“õîñï³ñ” - “áîãàä³ëüíÿ” - “ä³ì äëÿ á³äíèõ” - “áëàãîä³éíèé ä³ì”); “ terminal episode ”, “therapeutic misadventure”, “ negative patient care outcome” for “death of the patient” (“ñìåðòåëüíèé âèïàäîê” - “òåðàïåâòè÷íå íåùàñòÿ” - “íåãàòèâíèé íàñë³äîê òóðáîòè ïðî ïàö³ºíòà” - “ñìåðòü ïàö³ºíòà”). As the concept “capitalism” may have negative implication in itself, one can find “the system of free enterprising” or “open society”, or “economic humanism” in English mass media instead (“êàï³òàë³çì” - “ñèñòåìà â³ëüíîãî ï³äïðèºìíèöòâà” - “â³äêðèòå ñóñï³ëüñòâî” - “åêîíîì³÷íèé ãóìàí³çì”).

Among the crime related euphemisms we can find the following: “correctional facilities” for “prison”; “correctional officers” or “custodial officers” for “prison guards” (they can roughly be treated in Ukrainian as: “îô³öåðè ç âèïðàâíî¿ ðîáîòè” - “îô³öåðè âèïðàâíèõ çàêëàä³â” - “òþðåìí³ íàãëÿäà÷³”); “clients of correctional system” or even “guests” or “people enjoying temporarily hospitality from the state” instead of “prisoners” (“ê볺íòè âèïðàâíî¿ ñèñòåìè” - “ãîñò³”- “ëþäè, ÿê³ êîðèñòóþòüñÿ òèì÷àñîâîþ ãîñòèíí³ñòþ â³ä äåðæàâè”- “óâ'ÿçíåíí³”).

Gender related euphemisms are used to smooth out phenomena that can arise any kind of accusations of sexism and bias towards any gender. Thus “spokesperson” is preferred to “spokesman” (“äåëåãàò/-êà”), “camera operator” to “cameraman” (both relate to Ukrainian “îïåðàòîð”), “supervisor” to “foreman” (“íàñòàâíèê/-öÿ”), “fire fighter” to “fireman” (both relate to Ukrainian “ïîæåæíèê”), “mail carrier” to “postman” (“ïîøòàð/-êà”), “flight attendant” to “stewardess” (“ñòþàðä/ñòþàðäåñà”), “chairperson” to “chairman” (“ãîëîâóþ÷èé/-à”) and head teacher to headmistress (“äèðåêòîð/äèðåêòðèñà”).

Religion related euphemisms can be traced back to the earliest of written records. Protection of sacred names, rituals, and concepts from the uninitiated has always given rise to euphemisms, both for exclusion of outsiders and retention of power among select practitioners. The euphemisms are used for God and Jesus to avoid mentioning them in vain which would violate one of the Ten Commandments. Thus, instead of “Oh, my God!” you are very likely to hear “Oh, my Gosh!” or “Gee!” Euphemisms for hell, damnation, and the devil, on the other hand, are often used to avoid invoking the power of the adversary. The most famous in the latter category is the expression “What the dickens?” and its variants, which does not refer to the famed British writer but instead was a popular euphemism for the devil in its time. Among modern euphemisms of this kind we can mention Joanne Rowling's “He who must not be named” for the evil wizard Lord Voldemort.

Death has always raised superstitious fear as a phenomenon that cannot be cognized. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word “death” was to invite death. The euphemisms that can exemplify this group are as follows: “pass away” or “go to a better place” for “die” and “deceased” for “dead” (in Ukrainian we can find only “â³ä³éòè â êðàùèé ñâ³ò” for “die” and no proper euphemism for “dead”).

Among the “miscellaneous” group of euphemisms we can find such quite surprising for other languages speakers' examples as the use of “animal companions” for “pets” suggesting a person as a master or owner (“òâàðèíè - êîìïàíüéîíè” - “äîìàøí³ òâàðèíè”). In the same way “botanical companions” can be heard instead of “house plants” (“ðîñëèíè - êîìïàíüéîíè” “äîìàøí³ ðîñëèíè”) or even “mineral companions” for objects of the inanimate world (“êîìïàíüéîíè - ì³íåðàëè”).

Conclusion

As a conclusion, we may point it out, that the linguistic picture of the world reflects the mentality of the people - the bearer of this language. The concept “understatement” (Jioeva A). is one of key ones reflecting the mentality of the British and Americans (yet being less reflected in the later). A euphemism as a word or phrase used to avoid saying some unpleasant or offensive word wholly corresponds to this concept as people use this figure of speech in their interactions to show politeness and to soften definite realia considering which people may become emotionally vulnerable. A wide range of euphemisms can be found in English, roughly divided into a number of subject groups discussed in the article, all of them reflecting different spheres of life or realia that are considered emotionally significant thus requiring a means to smooth out excessive negative emotional connotation.

As English is constantly undergoing changes (in the manner of most living languages) undoubtedly the question of euphemisms as reflection of English people mentality requires further researches there being many unclear and questionable aspects of the phenomenon.

References

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4. Crystal D. English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003. 212 p.

5. Fowler R. Linguistics and the Novel. Uxbridge, United Kingdom: Routledge, 2017. 145 p.

6. Fox K. Watching the English: The Hidden Rules of English behaviour. Hodder, 2005. 157 p.

7. Jioeva A. English Mentality Viewed in the Light of the English Language. M.: Moscow University Press, 2014. 151 p.

8. Johnstone B. Discourse analysis. (2nd ed). The US, the UK, Australia, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. 336 p.

9. Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Incorporated, 1999. P. 325.

10. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of current English / A.S. Hornby; managing editor, Joanna Turnbull; principal editor, Diana Lea; senior editor, Dilys Parkinson; editors, Patrick Phillips... [et al.]; phonetics editor, Michael Ashby. 8th ed., 2010. 1796 p.

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