The essential propositional codes of the English-language discourse

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National University «Odesa Law Academy»

The essential propositional codes of the English-language discourse

Maslova S.B.,

candidate of philological sciences, associate professor at the department of foreign languages

Lesnevska K.V.,

senior lecturer at the department of foreign languages

Abstract

cognitive linguistics english verb

The article gives a description of contemporary Cognitive Linguistics objectives and aims. The main definitions are indicated here as the essential knowledge which is revealed in this science as its basis. The work observes the close relationship between Language/Discourse and Cognitive processing in the human's brain/consciousness. The Language/Discourse gives us the natural access to any human's consciousness and cognitive processes. Cognitive Linguistics as Science studies close connection between Language/Discourse and Cognition with the help of any human's mental language structures - so-called Codes of expressing any human's mind thoughts/ideas. The aim of the present article is to determine Main and Basic Codes of expressing thoughts with the help of the English-Language Discourse. The Main Code is Sentence (grammatical term) or Proposition (semantic term of Cognitive Linguistics). Any English Proposition has Strict Word Order which is a real Algorithm in fact:» Subject+Predicate» («S+P») + (Object/Complement). Object can follow Predicate/be absent/be merged with Predicate as its integral part. The Basic Code is Verb Predicate Formula which has some exact lexical meaning. These Formulas are represented in English Grammar in details. They must be learnt in order to be used for expressing any human's Mind Thought automatically. The Verb Predicate Formula is regarded as Implicit Proposition since the Subject before this Basic Code can be definite parts of speech such as Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, Infinitive, Numeral, etc. and also some specific words, such as «There» («There is/are constructions), «It» (Impersonal Sentences), etc. English Grammar represents definite various Verb Predicate Formulas which are called Patterns/Models. These Formulas - Codes determine specific connection of Main Verbs having lexical different meanings with Auxiliary Verbs («helping verbs»), Modal Verbs etc. and the definite Basic Code gives the real ability to express, to reveal any human's Mind Thought in the process of his/her acts of communicating and cognizing our world. The research of the nature of these Codes (Concepts) in Cognitive Linguistics has great importance for any human being.

Key words: cognitive linguistics, proposition, algorithm, cliche, subject, verb-predicate formula.

Анотація

Маслова С.Б., Лесневська К.В. Основні пропозиційні коди англо-мовного дискурсу

Когнітивна наука, а саме когнітивна лінгвістика з'явилась порівняно нещодавно, приблизно в 60-ті роки 20 століття. Стержнем цієї науки є її спрямованість на отримання знання, інформації про світ за допомогою дискурсу. Когнітивний підхід базується на розумінні самої мови / дискурсу, як когнітивної здатності. Когнітивна лінгвістика розглядає мову / дискурс, як об'єкт дослідження, єдності та зв'язку нашої свідомості, нашої думки з функціонуванням нашої мови / нашого дискурсу. Когнітивна лінгвістика як сучасна наука досліджує реальні, головні, основні, базові концепти - коди вираження думок людини за допомогою мови / дискурсу. Головним Кодом в англо-мовному дискурсі виявляється Речення (граматичний термін) або Пропозиція (семантичний термін когнітивної лінгвістики). Пропозиція становить алгоритм - певний незмінний порядок слів (членів речення): Підмет/Суб'єкт + Присудок / Предикат + (Додаток/Об'єкт). Додаток/об'єкт може бути відсутнім в алгоритмі Пропозиції або в результаті злиття з Присудком / Предикатом може входити до його складу, створюючи єдине з ним ціле. Таким чином, Додаток як невіддільна частина Предикату перетворюється саме на Предикат, а саме на Формулу Дієслова/Дієслів Предикату. Базовим кодом вираження думки людини визначається також певна формула дієслова/дієслів (частин мови), яка становить присудок /предикат (член речення). Усі ці так званні формули детально представленні і вивчаються в граматиці англійської мови як певний зразок або модель зі своїм певним лексичним значенням. Формули дієслова/ дієслів предикату становлять певний код вони мають бути вивчені до стану автоматичного вжитку. Чудовим прикладом мають бути юридичні терміни - словосполучення, так званні фрази. Формула дієслова/дієслів присудка/пре - дикату виявляється фактично імпліцитною пропозицією, оскільки підметом/суб'єктом можуть бути різні частини мови: іменник, займенник, герундій, інфінітив, числівник та деякі особливі специфічні слова, як «there/it» і так далі. Визначені формули дієслова/дієслів Предикату як Базові Коди вираження думки людини встановлюють специфічний зв'язок головнихдієслів, маючих лексичні значення, з допоміжними дієсловами, модальними дієсловами і так далі, що призводить до різноманітного вираження думок в свідомості людини у процесі його/її комунікації та пізнання світу.

Ключові слова: когнітивна лінгвістика, пропозиція, алгоритм, кліше, суб'єкт, формули дієслова/дієслів предикату.

Main part

The Subject of the work is the Propositional structure («S+P») as the index of direct link between thinking and discourse in the process of recreating the reality with propositional Codes (Signs). The article establishes the essential Main and Basic Propositional Codes of the English-Language Discourse.

The Object of the article is the description of the structural and semantic organization of the Proposition as Algorithmic Propositional Structure («S+P»), which may be constructed with key Subjects and Verb Predicate Formulas.

Methodology as the aggregate of the methods of investigations applied in any scientific research and as the study of the methods of scientific cognition includes: a) the corpus of scientific knowledge; b) the quantitative methodology; c) the scientific methods. The corpus of scientific knowledge includes: 1) the results of scientific linguistic investigations on the levels of syntax, semantics, cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, logic, philosophy; 2) the results of studying the English-language discourse itself - the texts of varied lexical filling as far as the basic conclusions of the present article don't depend on the lexical meanings, manifestations of the studied texts and correspond to any discourse. The object of investigation of the present work comprehends the texts of various lexical database including both social topics and scientific literature: English and American authors' fiction, various, numerous, sociopolitical topics, etc. The material of the present research includes more than 6000 propositional structures (Codes) - propositions (sentences) picked out with the method of all-round selection. The total volume of the investigated texts occupies about 5000 pages. The purpose and the tasks of the present article have predetermined the following methods: the method of analogy, the methods of induction and deduction; the case method; the comparative method; the heuristic method; the logical method and the hypothetical-deductive method.

Problem statement.

It's a fact that the English-language discourse is one of the most actual and wide-spread throughout the world nowadays. The English-language discourse is valid and progressive. Therefore, it needs constant, thorough and deep investigation in all the aspects of the linguistic science (syntax, semantics, cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, etc.) for its better mastering.

In contemporary linguistics Discourse as «(a) serious conversation or speech» is identified with the Text (monologue or dialogue) and regarded in the quality of the living, direct, spontaneous communicative act in the oral or written form [1,2, 3, 4].

The participants of Discourse are the Speaker (the Coder of Discourse) and the Listener (the Decoder of Discourse). Discourse is identical to intercourse, verbalizing (expressing something in words), and the explicit communication that is quite clear and fully expressed by its participants. Communication is the act of communicating (to communicate is to make news, opinions, thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc. known; to share, to exchange opinions, news, information, knowledge, etc.).

Analysis of recent research and publications.

Cognitive Linguistics as a Science is very progressive thus it is studied, investigated and developed successfully nowadays. The modern linguistic researches are as follows: «Objectives of modern cognitive linguistics» (L. V Klyuchnikova, 2021), «Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Concept» (R.R. Nigorakhon, 2021), «Cognitive Linguistics as a development of formal linguistics» (V.V Kolesov, 2019), «Emancipation of Lexical Motivation and Second Language Teaching under the Framework of Cognitive Linguistics» (Yu Li, Jianlei Zhang, Hao Li, 2018), «Exploring Individual Differences in Recognizing Idiomatic Expressions in Context» (M. Tilmatine, F. Hubers, 2021), «Metaphors for Educators: A Cultural Cognitive Approach» (Mei Tao, 2017), «Linguistic, Cognitive, and Psycholinguistic Perspectives on Metaphors» (Nafilah M. Aloairdhi, 2020). Modern linguists have given relevant concepts for speakers and linguistic research focuses on the processes of obtaining, processing, and storing information. Cognitive linguistics observes the relationship between language and cognitive processing in the human brain. Cognitive linguistics describes a language as a general cognitive mechanism as a cognitive system of Codes/Signs that plays a role in the representation and transformation of information.

The purpose of the article.

The Purpose or Target of our research is to establish the Essential Codes/Signs of the English-Language Discourse, which are capable and adequate to recreate any human's Mind Thought (Idea).

Research.

Cognitive Linguistics plays a great role in the processes of cognition and understanding of the world. The main objective of Cognitive Linguistics is to study cognitive mechanisms: the processes of perception, categorization and grouping and to develop possible language models. The Language/Discourse gives us the natural access to consciousness and cognitive processes.

According to one of the postulate of philosophy the sense of which is that any essence has got its own form and any form has got its own essence, any human's Mind Thought should have its formal proper Language/Discourse equivalent, analogue, that is, its Code.

The formal elements of the hierarchy of the English-Language Discourse are as follows: Text/Text Segment or Superphrasal Unity/ Sentence/Combination of Words/Word. There is a very important question if all the mentioned formal elements of the English - language discourse are the human's adequate Mind Codes for his thoughts (ideas), that is if all the mentioned formal elements are capable to reflect, to recreate any human's Mind Thoughts in isolation out of the context.

The central formal element of the English-language discourse is recognized to be Sentence. According to the Syntax definitionSentence is a unit of speech, which expresses a more or less complete thought and has a definite grammatical form. In the English-Language Discourse a human's utterance in the first instance corresponds to an elementary sentence as the simplest syntactic unit, which is characterized by the presence of Predication (Latin: praedicatio). Predication means that a sentence includes, contains at least the name of a thing (the word «thing» is used in a broad sense) and the name of an indication or a sign linked together [5. p. 121]. Therefore, a sentence consists of at least two elements: Subject and Predicate. Subject is directly related to the object of our thought. Predicate expresses the State (property, attribute, characteristic, relation, etc.) or the Action, which is bound up with Subject. This link or connection is established by the consciousness and it is expressed in a sentence. So, the external grammatical form of predication is the relationship between Subject and Predicate. The sentence is regarded as a genuine, real sign [5, p. 120]; as a predicative unit (expression, group, construction); as a syntactic structure enclosing, containing Predicate; as a communicative unit, an utterance (statement, opinion, judgment). Proposition serves as a means of social intercourse, communication, that is, exchanging information, knowledge expressing any human's thoughts, ideas and feelings, which arise as a result of his contact with the outside world. In modern Linguistics Sentence as a grammatical syntactic notion is identified with the semantic concept Proposition, which is used in Cognitive Linguistics. Proposition as an utterance, opinion, statement judgement corresponding to an elementary Sentence is considered as a tool, an apparatus of revealing, identifying the semantic or informative content of the sentences (utterances) of any text. Proposition - the «Subject+Predicate» unity (hereinafter - «S+P») is regarded and considered in the quality of a «germ» (a «core», a «nucleus») of any sentence forming on the syntactic level. Proposition is acknowledged as the main communicative unit of any text (discourse), an elementary unit of any person's consciousness and the basic unit of acquiring, exchanging information and knowledge. Proposition is the means of expressing any person's thoughts and feelings, which arise as a result of his contact with the outside world. In this sense the elementary Proposition (Sentence) appears as the main carrier of the content transmitted with the help of the language forms [1, p. 107-110]. Thus, in the English-language discourse the Proposition as the leading Main Code has become a major syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive notion denoting any person's complete thought (idea).

The Proposition itself is understood as a certain element of thought, that is to say a relevant predicate, which «places» are filled with signs, and the mental (mind) process (the process of thinking) shown, displayed in the Propositions is that which psychologists call our inner speech. Thus, the Verb Predicate Formula or Predicate code (sign or symbol) may be regarded as a central, basic component of the English Proposition as the Basic Code recreating our thoughts in the form of the Predicate expressing Predicativity, which is the key concept of reconstructing the human's thoughts by the variety of the appropriate codes.

Subject (in Grammar) includes a noun, a pronoun, a numeral, a substantivized adjective or participle, an infinitive, a gerund, any other word (construction or complex) when it is substantivized, which is most closely related to the verb in forming a sentence. Owing to the scantiness of inflexions for person and number in the verb, the subject is, as a rule, expressed (explicit) in the sentences (propositions) in the English-language discourse. Depending on the character of the subject, sentences are classified into Personal and Impersonal. Personal Sentence contains a subject, which denotes a certain person or thing or some abstract notion. Impersonal Sentence is a sentence, which predicate does not refer to any person or thing. In English the pronoun «It» is used as Subject in Impersonal sentences, but this «It» is practically meaningless, it has become impersonal, it does not indicate any person or thing and is a purely grammatical formal subject.

Predicate serves to assert something about its Subject denoting either an Action performed or undergone by the Subject or the State in which the Subject is/was/will be/etc. Predicate appears as the main principal basic link and it occupies the central position in any English Proposition according to its Word Order/Algorithm: I Subject + II Predicate +(III Complement/Object). According to most linguistic investigations all the Predicates fall under two main divisions: simple (verbal) predicates and compound (nominal/ verbal) ones. All the Simple and Compound Verbal Predicates denote Action; all the Compound Nominal Predicates denote State. The Simple Verbal Predicate, which denotes an activity (Action), performed (or suffered) by the Subject (Active/Passive Voice) is expressed by a finite verb (in a simple or compound form): «She reads well.»; «I have been working since the morning.» The compound verbal predicate is expressed by two verbs: one verb is in the finite form, the other is in the form of an Infinitive or Gerund. The choice depends on the first verb. There are predicates that may be called Double Predicates. In the sentence «The moon rose red» there is on the one hand a verbal predicate expressed by the verb «rose» - a verb of full meaning which denotes a certain process performed by the subject; on the other hand there is the adjective «red» which qualifies the subject in the same way as a predicative qualifies the subject in a compound nominal predicate: «The moon was red». Thus, in the sentence «The moon rose red» there is a special type of predicate (double predicate), which presents combining of two predicates - a verbal predicate and a nominal predicate: «The moon rose red» = «The moon was red when it rose». The verb «rose» performs here the role of a link-verb connecting the subject «moon» with the predicative «red» in the general meaning «Action+State» In Modern English there is a strong tendency towards the development of Double Predicates.

In the English-Language Discourse any Predicate as the Basic Codeis expressed by the Main Verb first and foremost. The Verb is a word or phrase that tells what someone or something is, does, or experiences. There are two types of verbs: Main Verbs and Auxiliary Verbs.

Predicate is regarded as a central element of a propositional structure (Proposition), it determines the structure of Proposition, it holds, contains the essence of the state of affairs within itself. And in this sense Predicate is defined as a propositional function, that is the form of judgement or Proposition, and this form is equivalent to the content of Predicate or Sentence. Thus, the concept of Predicate is defined as a special semantic essence of Language/Discourse, which is typified in the form of the propositional functions (not in the form of vocabulary units) and the semantic structures of Proposition (Sentence), which correspond to these functions. Predicate occupies a dominant position in the hierarchical system of «Predicate - Arguments», Predicate stands out as the peculiar constructive «nucleus» specifying its environment composition, which may consist of a certain number of its members (arguments). Arguments or non-Predicate signs include Subject and Complement (Object) expressed not only by nouns (common nouns and proper nouns) and substantival pronouns (substantival - from Latin substantivum - noun), but also by almost all the parts of speech in the English-Language Discourse. That's why Predicativity is interpreted as functional, not as a substantival category of words [5.P.77-78; 81]. Proposition itself is understood as a certain element ofthought, that is to say a relevant predicate, which «places» are filled with signs, and the mental (mind) process (the process of thinking) shown, displayed in Propositions is that, which psychologists call a human's inner speech. Thus, the Predicate Code (sign or symbol) may be regarded as a central key component of the English Proposition as the minimum Mind Form recreating a human's Mind Thought in the form of the Predicate expressing Predicativity. In the English-language discourse any Predicate as the Basic Mind Code is expressed by the Main Verb first and foremost. The Verb is a word or phrase that tells what someone or something is, does, or experiences. There are two types of verbs: Main Verbs: «TO DO» (action - «to work»; «to dance»; «to study»; etc.); «TO BE» (state/action - «people's behaviour»); «TO HAVE» (state/action) and Auxiliary Verbs: «DO»; «BE»; «HAVE»/Modal Auxiliaries: «can/could/may/might/must/will/would/shall/should/ought to/ need». («Need» can also be an ordinary non-auxiliary verb.)

Human can never think a thought without Predicate and its referring element - Subject. Thus, the fact of the availability of mental predicativity (the Propositional Structure) is irrefutable as «somebody's Action/ State» or «Action/State of something». The concept «Action/State» goes back to the «latent» Predicate Main Verbs, which point out either the presence of connection («copula»), or the most generalized and abstract type of connection.

Any Predicate Pattern corresponds to the Combination of Words as a formal element of the English-language discourse hierarchy. Any Combination of Words as a potential Predicate goes back in its form to one of the five Verb forms - the Infinitive. The Infinitive form itself is considered to be the Combination of Words: a) the Finite Verb - particle «to»+ «Base Form of the Verb» («to issue», «to serve», etc.); b) the Phrasal Verb - a small group ofwords that acts like a verb and consists usually of the Verb with the Adverb and/or the Preposition («to set down/aside», «be against», «to look for/to look at/to look after», etc.); c) the Complementation Infinitive structure (V+C) («to take criminal proceeding», «to take care of», etc.). Any Infinitive Structure could be a potential Predicate (in all its possible patterns) of any Proposition. As a potential explicit Predicate the Infinitive is known as the so-called Infinitivization.

According to Proposition Algorithm: «Subject + Predicate + (Object/Complement)» it's just the Verb Predicate can merge with its particular Object/Complement into some definite, indivisible, complete unity/unit. Object becomes the integral part of Predicate.

This merger is a progressive tendency in the English - Language Discourse and such patterns/models create the integral Verb Predicate Formulas. Such constructed unities comprehend the Main Verbs («to do»/» to be»/» to have») in their generalized meanings («state»/» action») and constitute, construct the single, invariable Verb Predicate Formulas. Such finished lexical Predicate constructions should be memorized as definite combinations of words (phrases) in the form of Infinitive. For example, «to be late»/» to do a great deal of harm (to)»/» to have a conversation».

Such single Verb Predicate Formulas can be regarded as one of the reasons of appearance of Sentences/Propositions-clichesin the near future. Such Propositions/Cliches should be perceived as definite Propositions revealing expressing any human's Mind Thoughts without any problems.

One of the best examples of Verb Predicate Formulas can be legal terms (combinations of words) in Legal terminology.

The most widely-used Predicate Patterns («TO BE/TO DO») as legal terms are as follows: «TO BE» - to be under an accusation of…; to be against; to be of age; to be underage; to be alive; to be alleged; to be authorized; to be empowered; to be entrusted; to be aware; to be accounted to be guilty; to be accountable for one's action; to be at the bar; to be under ban; to be bound to; to be obliged to; to be under care; to be charged with; to be concerned with; to be contrary to; to be convinced of; to be in council; to be out of court; to be in custody; to be different from; to be on duty; to be eligible; to be entitled to; to be equal; to be excused from; to be fit for; to be in force; to be free from bias; to be found guilty; to be guilty; to be innocent; to be invalid; to be null and void; to be liable; to be on remand; to be reasonable for; to be subject to; to be sued; to be on the track; to be tried at the bar; «TO DO» (generalized meaning): to bring an action; to bring a case before the court; to bring a charge against smb.; to bring an accusation against; to bring before the bar; to bring to justice (trial); to bring the charge; to bring forth a confession; to bring forward a proof; to bring in a bill; to bring in a verdict; to bring into being; to bring into the court; to enter a motion; to enter a plea; to enter a protest; to enter the satisfaction; to enter upon the record; to take an affidavit; to take an appeal; to take a ballot; to take a brief; to take the blame upon oneself; to take chair; to take cognizance (of); to take a concert action; to take criminal proceedings; to take down verbatim; to take effect; to take evidence; to take a formal note; to take in the act of; to take into custody; to take judicial notice of; to take a law off the books; to take legal advice; to take legal steps; etc.

As we can see all the legal terms shown above correspond to the combination of words - the other formal element of the English - Language Discourse hierarchy. The represented word combinations go back in their forms to one of the five Verb forms - the Infinitive. The Infinitive is considered to be the combination of words: a) Finite Verb: Particle «to»+ Base Form of the Verb («to issue», «to serve», etc.); b) Phrasal Verb: a small group of words that acts like a verb and consists usually of a verb with an adverb and/or a preposition («to set down/aside», «to be against», etc.); c) Complementation Infinitive Structure: Verb + Complement/Object («V+C») for instance («to take criminal proceeding», «to bring the charge»). Any Infinitive Structure could be a potential Predicate (in all its possible patterns/models) of any Proposition. As potential explicit Predicate the Infinitive containing only Main Verb («to know» etc.); Phrasal Verb: Main Verb with Preposition/Adverb («to call in»; «to set aside», etc.); Main Verb + Complement/Object («to take criminal proceedings»; etc.) may be called Infinitivization.

According to the given above information it is quite clear and evident that it is just the Predicate that bears fundamental work (load) in the process of revealing, disclosing the primary meaning of any Proposition/Sentence as the Main English Code reproducing any Human's Thought. Thus, the main part in the process of creating Cliches and all the other Propositions/Sentences has been always played by Verb Predicate (group of verbs, phrasal verbs) as a constructive basic unit. According to the above given knowledge and contemporary Cognitive Linguistics investigations English Proposition/Sentence is an integral unit where the fact of obligatory presence of the «Subject + Predicate» structure may be regarded as obvious Algorithm, which definite order and «exact instructions» for expressing a human's complete thought have been depending on the kinds/types of the Proposition itself and the patterns/models of its Predicate, which is most important. All the cases of inversions, exclusions and other violations of the specific Propositions Algorithms are quite natural as colloquial variants in the English - Language Discourse.

It is just the Proposition/Sentence (the central formal element of hierarchy of the English-Language Discourse) - Propositional Structure containing its Predicate as its summit is the Main Code of any human's Mind Thought in the English-Language Discourse. Potential new Propositions may be easily constructed on the basis of their Basic Codes - Verb Predicate Formulas.

We suggest the idea that the acknowledged Word Order of any English Proposition may be identified with the notion «Algorithm» - «S+P» Algorithm.

The English language has lost almost all case inflexions, and the form of the common case of the noun no longer discriminates its syntactical function. As a result ofthe disappearance of case forms, Modern English has developed a rather fixed and rigid Word Order to indicate the various syntactical functions of words in Propositions/ Sentences, for instance in Declarative Sentence the Subject precedes the Verb Predicate («S+P»). We suggest the idea that in fact the strict Proposition Word Order (Subject+Predicate+Complement…) in spite of possible cases of inversion represents just the Algorithm, and that is very important for realizing the idea, the basic principle of reconstructing any human's Mind Thought in a proper way in English, that is, with the help of the Mind Main Code - Propositional Sign - Proposition/Sentence or Explicit Propositional Structure. Algorithm is one of the most important concepts of mathematics and mathematical logic. It means the exact instructions of executing actions or operations resulting in solving one or other tasks in a definite order. Such exact instructions are quite natural and specific in the process of making up EnglishPropositions/ Sentences. Algorithms of Propositions are of great importance in the English-Language Discourse. As English words have hardly any inflections and their relation to each other is shown by their place in Proposition and not by their form, the Algorithm in English is fixed. We cannot change the position of different parts of Proposition/Sentence at will, especially that of the Subject, the Predicate and the Complement (Object). To illustrate that we'll try to change the Algorithm in the following Proposition/ Sentence: «He sent the little boy with a message to the next village one December day». If we put the Direct Object in the first place and the Subject in the third, the meaning of the Proposition will be changed altogether because the Object, being placed at the head of the Proposition, becomes the Subject and the Subject, being placed after the Predicate, becomes the Object: «The little boy sent him with a message to the next village one December day». So, due to the absence of case distinctions the Algorithm is practically the only means of distinguishing between the Subject and Direct Complement/Object. The above Sentence may serve as an example of DirectAlgorithm in any English Declarative Sentence (Affirmative Proposition): «(1) Subject+ (2) Predicate + (3) Complement/ Object.» Algorithm is characteristic for all the kinds of Propositions (Affirmative/Interrogative/Negative). The places of Adverbial Modifies also submit to Algorithm of any Proposition. For instance, there are three normal positions for Adverbs: initial position (at the beginning of Proposition); mid-position (before the Verb, or part of the Verb); end-position (at the end of Proposition).The definite position of Adverb depends on the meaning of Adverb itself.

Impersonal Subject «It» is used in sentences denoting: a) Natural Phenomena (such as the state of the weather, etc.) or that which characterizes the environment: «It often rains heavily in autumn. /It looks like rain./It is cold in winter./It is stuffy in here. It is delightfully quiet in the night./It is freezing now./It is hailing now./It was a bright, sunny day./By this time it was getting dark and snowing pretty heavily./It froze straight on for two months./ It was a chilly day in early spring./What a cold winter it was!/It snows./It's snowing now. (but - There is a lot of snow in the street) / It pours. /It's coming on to pour. / It hails. /It drizzles. / It thunders. / It lightens. / It thaws.»; b) Time/Period of Time: «It is six minutes past six./It is morning already./It is rather late./It was five o'clock of a cold winter afternoon./It was early when we left home./It's three years since I saw you./It's only months to Xmas./ It's late./ It's early./It's time./It's high time./It's five o'clock./What time is it?/ It's ten past six. (Br.E)/ It's ten after six. (Am.E.) /It's twenty-five to three. (Br.E.)/ It's twenty-five of three. (Am.E.) /It's three o'clock sharp. /It's about (a) quarter past four. /It's four minutes to nine.» The word «minutes» is not used with: five/ten/twenty/twenty-five: «It's five to nine./It's seventeen hours (official)/It's two o'clock a.m. (since 12 o'clock at night (at midnight) till 12 o'clock at noon)/ It's two o'clock p.m. (since 12 o'clock) at noon till 12 o'clock at night.»; c) Distance: «How far is it from your office to the bank? / It is a long way to the station (to the sea)/ It's three miles to the nearest garage. /It's far. /It's near. / It's not (too) far (from…)/ It's much too far away.»; d) Temperature/Weather Forecast: «It's 10 degrees above zero/ It's 10 degrees below zero/It's warm. / It's hot. / It's stuffy. / It's cool. / It's chilly. / It's slippery. / It's slushy. / It's windy. / It's muddy. / It's wet. / It's nasty. / It's dry (enough). / It's (too) damp. / It's foggy. / It's misty. / It's frosty. / It's delightfully quiet at night.»; e) Mode of Action/ Person's attitude towards events: «It's easy./It's difficult./It's hard./It's possible./It's impossible./It's probable./It's a really lovely day./It's known./It's unknown./It's wrong./It's right./ It's important./It's a good idea./It's necessary./It's a pity./It's natural./ It's unnatural./It's lovely here./It's a great joy./It's dangerous./ It's interesting./It's useful./It's useless./It's no use./It's over./It's pleasant./It's unpleasant.»; f) Seasons/Months/Days of the Week: «It's winter./It's spring./It's summer./It's autumn./It's January./ It's February./ It's March./It's April./It's May./It's June./It's July./It's August./It's September./It's October./It's November./It's December./ It's Monday./It's Tuesday./It's Wednesday./It's Friday./It's Saturday./ It's Sunday.»; g) State of Things in general: «It is all over with the poor child./It was very painful, wasn't it?»

In sentences denoting a state of things in general we often find the plurals: «things», «matters» and occasionally «affairs», which are no more definite than Impersonal «It»: «Things went on smoothly. How stand matters between you and your brother?»

The pronoun «It» has a demonstration force when it is used to point out a person or thing expressed in Proposition by Predicative Noun: «Who is it? It is the well-known artist.»

Summarizing the different uses of the pronoun «It» as subject, we can see that it may be used: 1) in its ordinary meaning of a personal pronoun serving to replace a noun of neuter gender referring to all the nouns (singular) except people; 2) as a formal subject in Impersonal Propositions/Sentences; 3) with the function of an anticipatory «it»; 4) with the meaning of a demonstrative «it».

All the mentioned words («it»/» things»/» matters»/etc.) are non - definite, meaningless but all of them substitute «Subject» in Strict Word Order - «S+P» structure that corresponds to Essential English Algorithm for expressing any thought. Any complete thought as an idea is identified with Mind Code. This Mind Code corresponds to Propositional Sign (Code) where Proposition itself can be Explicit (a sentence) or Implicit (a combination of words), for example: «to study English» = «He/She can study English»; «to run» = «He/She/It is running now».

Sometimes the Impersonal construction is used side by side with the construction «There is/are or There was/were: «It is/was raining fast. /There is/was a heavy rain. / It dewed heavily last night. / There was a heavy dew last night.»

In the construction «There is/are» the word «there» (formerly the adverb of place «there») has lost its local meaning, which is shown by the possibility of combining it in the sentence with the adverbs of place «here» and «there»: «There is a book here/there.» «There» is a word that can be used: a) as an adverb meaning «in that place»; b) as an introductory particle in sentences beginning «There is/There are/There seems/There might be/etc.» When we tell people «that something exists (in affirmative sentences) or does not exist (in negative sentences) we usually begin the sentence with «There is»/» There are» (with plural subjects) and put the «Real» Subject after the Verb. According to «S+P» Algorithm we consider that it is more expedient to regard the so-called «Real» Subject in the quality of: a) the predicative, namely its nominal part in the structure of the Compound Nominal Predicate: «There is some money in my wallet.»; b) the part of the Compound Verbal Predicate: «There remains nothing more to be done.» Thus, Proposition starting with Introductory Subject «There» serve the idea of asserting or denying the existence of somebody or something. This idea is first and foremost expressed by the Compound Nominal Predicate (or in thesome cases by the Compound Verbal Predicate), which has got the primary meaning of State. The usual model of expressing the meaning of State is equivalent to the meaning of the Compound Nominal Predicate including the Link-Verb and the Predicative followed it. The Link-Verb in the first place is the basic Predicate part expressing State. That is why the usual and basic link-verb of the compound nominal predicate in the Propositions/Sentences with the Subject «There» is the Main Verb «TO BE».

The Main Verb «TO BE» is the Basic English Verb having the meaning of State/Action. The Predicative (the nominal part of the Compound Nominal Predicate) placed after the Link-Verb (so-called «the Indefinite Real Subject») corresponds as a rule to nouns or pronouns which meaning may be really regarded as indefinite (a book, books, some books): «There is a book on the table. There are some books in his bag.» The predicative models after the Link-Verb «TO BE» can be as follows: «There's ice on the lake.» (Nominal part - noun «ice» is singular); «There are children in the house.» (Nominal part - noun «children» is plural).

The Nominal Compound Predicate can also include the following models: there might be: «There might be drinks if you wait a bit.»; there appear(s) to be: «There appear to be several reasons for changing our plans.»; there seem(s) to be: «There seems to be a reason for his arriving.»; there to be: «I'd like there to be a swimming-pool in the garden.»; there being: «What's the chance of there being an election this year?»; there+be+noun+participle: «There was a girl water-skiing on the lake.» (Or: «A girl was water-skiing…»). The Propositions with the Subject «There» can be represented with the Compound Nominal Predicates which predicatives are the following pronouns: some/any/no/somebody/ anybody/ nobody/something/anything/ nothing: «There are some people inside. There were no footsteps to be seen. Is there anybody at home? There's something worrying me. Is there anything in the fridge?» It is possible to note the use of «wrong» and «the matter» with «something», «anything» and «nothing»: «There's something wrong. Is there anything the matter? Nothing's wrong (or the matter) with her.» Predicatives cannot be expressed by a «definite» Nominal part (for instance, a noun with a definite article, or a proper name), so, a proposition with «There» Subject is not normally used: «The door was open. James was at the party.» The exception to this is when «be» is followed by a proper name, or a definite Nominal part without any Complement: «- Who can we ask? - There's James, or Miranda, or Annie.» Some other verbs can be used with «There», besides «to be». These are Verbs, which express State: «live, exist, remain», or the Verbs, which are used to describe the arrival of somebody or something: «come, arise, occur, arrive, appear, enter, follow». These verbs are used with «There» most often in a literary or formal style: «There followed an uncomfortable silence.» Other Verbs (for instance, Verbs which refer to Actions) cannot be used with «There».

The Impersonal Propositions, the Constructions «There is/are» and «There was/were» are Mind Main Codes. The fact of appearing the words-homonyms like «It» and «There» in the quality and function of the specific Introductory Subjects, which are absolutely meaningless in isolation (outside the context - Proposition) is a straightforward confirmation of the availability, necessity and validity of English Main Mind Code - «S+P» Explicit Propositional Structure.

According to the modern Cognitive Linguistics investigations English Proposition/Sentence is an integral unit where the fact of obligatory presence of the «Subject and Predicate» structure may be regarded as an obvious «S+P» Algorithm, which definite order and «exact instructions» for expressing any human's Mind Thought have been depending on the kinds/types of the Proposition itself and its Predicate Pattern, which is most important. All the cases of inversions, exclusions and other violations of the specific Propositions Algorithms are quite natural as colloquial variants in the English-Language Discourse.

It's just the «S+P» Algorithm of any English Proposition as a definite stable Code that recreates any human's Mind Thought (the notion «human» regularly used in the present article corresponds to a speaker coding discourse and a listener decoding discourse). This conclusion may be confirmed once again by the availability of the algorithmic (S+P) structures such as Impersonal sentences, «There is/are» constructions (propositions) and increasing facts of Complementations: («V+C») - «Predicate + Complement/ Object» (hereinafter - «V+C»).

Predicate in most cases is expressed by Complementation Structure («V+C»), which being included into Predication Structure, may be considered as structural and semantic basis for rendering both relative and non-relative situations of various semantic content. [6, p. 170]

According to Cognitive Linguistics the mentioned Complementations (Complementation structures) should be regarded as Verb Predicate Formulas. Merging Predicates with their Complements/Objects («V+C») into the single unit means the creation of «New» Verb Predicate Formulas because Complement/Object becomes Predicate integral part.

Specific Algorithms are characteristic for various kinds of English Propositions (Affirmative/Interrogative/Negative).

Thus, Algorithms of Propositions may lead to merging of all the members of Proposition/Sentence into a unified, inseparable unity having some definite, individual, general sense and meaning. It's just the Algorithm of Proposition that is the Cause of appearing the specific «ready-made up» propositional structure as its Effect (Consequence). This structure is Proposition/Sentence, which is called «Cliche» (from French cliche). The confirmation of the above opinion can be the fact of the progressive tendency of constant appearing complete set constructions as Cliche corresponding to Propositions/ Sentences. Cliche is a discourse stereotype, a set phrase, which is used in a quality of a standard reproduced easily in definite conditions and contexts. Cliche makes up a constructive unit, which preserves its semantics and expressiveness in many cases. [7. P 108-109].In contrast to a stock phrase constituting a hackneyed expression (a tag) having lacklustre lexical meaning and wiped off expressiveness, Cliche makes up a constructive unit preserving its semantics and expressiveness in many cases. [7. p. 108].The positive features of Cliche are as follows: a) Cliche corresponds to psychological stereotypes (to the facts) reflecting the phenomena of a human's reality, the moments of his life (the facts) repeated frequently; b) Cliche reproduces easily the finished speech formulas (Discourse Propositional Structure - Sign); c) Cliche furthers to automate the process of reproducing any human's Mind Thought by Propositional sign (Mind Code); d) Cliche facilitates the process of communication; e) Cliche spares any human's mental efforts, the energy and time of his power of abstract thought. Any Cliche as any English Declarative Sentence (Affirmative Proposition) submits to the Algorithm: «I Subject + II Predicate + (III Complement/Object)».

If Proposition/Sentence is the Main Code - Explicit Propositional Structure - Mind Main Code - Proposition/Sentence containing its Predicate as its backbone, then its Verb Predicate Formula is the minimum Basic Code - Implicit Propositional Structure - Mind Basic Code - the Minimum Sign of close, direct, spontaneous connection between the process of thinking and discourse. The quality of being the backbone is most essential for Verb Predicate Formula. That means that the Verb Predicate Formula is the major constructive element, the essence of any human's thought, idea and more precisely any human's Mind Code recreating his/here Mind Thought.

We may suggest using the new definition of the Proposition of the English-Language Discourse: Proposition is the algorithmic, Main explicit integral «Subject + Predicate» unity, the Main Propositional structure (Sign/Code), the main Mind Code recreating any human's Mind Thought depending on the Meaning/Pattern expressed by its Verb Predicate Formula.

Mastering the English-language discourse supposes mastering all the Verb Predicate Formulas of the Proposition. In fact any human'sBasic Mind Thoughts correspond to the Actions and the States expressed by the Main Verbs (or together with Auxiliary Verbs) - by the Predicates themselves and Predicates together with their Complements confirming a well-known philosophical idea «Movement (Action) is Life (State)». The result of any Action is a definite State, which promotes new Action. Thus, Action is the Cause and State is the Effect and vice versa.

The bright examples of the above idea are the meanings of a) the main verb «TO HAVE» (Action/State) and b) the Present Perfect Tense II meaning Finished Actions (as the explicit idea) and their results as States at present (as the possible implicit idea in our consciousness), for example: a) «His wife had a baby last week.» (finished Action in the Past as the explicit idea - «had a baby»); «He has got a son at last.» (State at present - implicit idea as a possible result of the finished Action in our consciousness - «has got a son»); b) «My parents have already arrived.» (finished Action as the explicit idea - «have arrived»); «My parents are at home at last.» (State at present - implicit idea as a possible result of the finished Action in our consciousness - «are at home»). The «Cause/Effect» mechanism existing and working in our world has been always reflected by our consciousness in the process of our thinking.

Discourse (Text) is Verbalization as the process of expressing (something) in words and more exactly in Predicate always going back to the Main Verb in our consciousness and this Main Verb in itself or togetherwith definite Auxiliary Verb is transformed into Explicit Mind Code - Verb Predicate Formula - in the process of coding any human's Mind Thought.

References

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