CLIL methodology in teaching academic writing: paragraph-level support activities
CLIL methodology principles as a contemporary approach to teaching nonlanguage disciplines in an additional (foreign) language. This approach was first applied in the 1950s in Canada and the USA and has been gaining popularity in Europe until nowadays.
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CLIL methodology in teaching academic writing: paragraph-level support activities
Viktoriia Tokarchuk,
Ph.D. in Philology, Senior Lecturer at the Department of English Philology and Teaching English Bohdan Khmelnytsky National University of Cherkasy (Cherkasy, Ukraine)
Yuliia Shuba,
Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor at the Department of English Philology and Teaching English Bohdan Khmelnytsky National University of Cherkasy (Cherkasy, Ukraine)
The article provides an outline of CLIL methodology principles as a contemporary approach to teaching nonlanguage disciplines in an additional (foreign) language. This approach was first applied in the 1950s in Canada and the USA and has been gaining popularity in Europe until nowadays. In Ukraine, CLIL is being successfully piloted at different educational levels in the last decade. This approach is flexible and adaptable to various educational settings, it can be applied by the teacher at a different pace and for the content of different scope. The theoretical foundations of CLIL are constituted by 4Cs: content, communication, cognition, and culture. Out of these basic principles, content has a slight priority over communication, cognition, and culture; it is the starting point for developing the class outline. To balance subject content and language, the teacher provides language support in class which can have an explicit form (scaffolding) or an implicit form (embedding). Scaffolding provides learners with the support to accomplish the tasks set. Assistance from the teacher is supposed to engage students in the learning process where they both acquire knowledge and receive real life experience. CLIL emphasizes the use of only authentic materials designed according to seven principles: the primacy of `task', prioritizing the three dimensions of content, guiding input and supporting output, scaffolding and embedding, making key language salient, the concept of `difficulty ' in didactic materials, thinking in sequences. In this paper we provide examples ofparagraph-level support activities elaborated for academic writing classes in accordance with CLIL methodology basic principles. These paragraph-level support activities are directed to encourage learners to develop soft skills and obtain new experience for self-development.
Key words: academic writing, CLIL (content and language integrated learning), 4Cs framework, paragraph, paragraph-level support, principles of material design, scaffolding.
ЗАСТОСУВАННЯ CLIL-МЕТОДОЛОГІЇ В НАВЧАННІ АКАДЕМІЧНОГО ПИСЬМА: ВПРАВИ НА ФОРМУВАННЯ НАВИЧОК НАПИСАННЯ АБЗАЦУ
Вікторія ТОКАРЧУК,
кандидат філологічних наук,
старший викладач кафедри англійської філології та методики навчання англійської мови Черкаського національного університету імені Богдана Хмельницького (Черкаси, Україна)
Юлія ШУБА,
кандидат філологічних наук, доцент кафедри англійської філології та методики навчання англійської мови Черкаського національного університету імені Богдана Хмельницького (Черкаси, Україна)
У статті зазначаються основні принципи методології інтегрованого навчання предмету та мови (CLIL), яка належить до сучасних практик ефективного навчання немовних предметів іноземною мовою. Вперше застосована у 1950-хроках у Канаді та США, ^К-методологія популяризується у Європі на початку ХХІ століття. В Україні пілотування ^К-методології у навчальних закладах спостерігається протягом останнього десятиліття. Гнучкість та легкість в адаптуванні до вимог різноманітного освітнього середовища надають можливість освітянам застосовувати цей підхід у навчанні учнів різного віку при опануванні неоднорідного за наповненням матеріалу, обираючи оптимальний темп навчання. В основу теорії К-методології покладено 4К - контент, комунікацію, когніцію та культуру, серед яких деякою пріоритетністю вирізняється зміст, адже саме з нього починається планування уроку. З метою встановлення балансу між предметним наповненням і мовою, вчитель застосовує мовні опори - скафолдінг (опори явно вираженого характеру) або опори-включення (опори прихованого характеру). Завдяки скафолдінгу студенти /учні отримують підтримку, необхідну для виконання поставлених завдань. Передбачається, що допомога з боку вчителя залучить студентів /учнів до навчального процесу, під час якого вони як отримають нові знання, так і набудуть життєвого досвіду. У методології наголошується на необхідності використовувати лише автентичні матеріали, розроблені відповідно до семи принципів: першочерговості завдання, пріоритетності трьох вимірів змісту, керування рецепцією мовлення та супроводу продукування мовлення, скафолдінгу та опор-включень, важливості ключових мовних засобів, «складності» дидактичних матеріалів, послідовного мислення. У статті ми наводимо приклади вправ для навчання написання абзацу, що розроблені для занять з академічного письма з урахуванням основних принципів методології. Такі вправи мають на меті мотивувати учнів до розвитку гнучких навичок та до отримання досвіду для саморозвитку.
Ключові слова: абзац, академічне письмо, (методологія інтегрованого навчання предмету та мови), 4К основа, підтримка на рівні абзацу, принципи організації навчального матеріалу, скафолдінг.
Establishing the problem. Multilingualism is a characteristic feature of modern society that requires thorough knowledge of more than one language to thrive. To satisfy the growing needs of the society, educators develop effective methods of teaching aimed at mastering the content and formation of foreign language communicative skills. One of such approaches is the CLIL-based approach which has proved its efficiency in many European countries. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is regarded as «a dual- focused educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language» (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010: 1). Thus, this methodology focuses on both content and language in the learning process.
D. Coyle and O. Meyer understand CLIL as a constantly evolving approach to learning and teaching diverse subjects in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. Being transferable and flexible, CLIL provides different models to choose from to meet learners' needs. There are many different models which depend on a range of contexts, correspondingly the learning focus and outcomes can differ according to the model adopted (Coyle & Meyer, 2021: 3).
The article aims to outline the principles of CLIL methodology as an effective educational practice and to dwell on scaffolding in CLIL; to suggest ideas of implementing scaffolding activities while teaching writing a paragraph at academic writing classes.
Previous research. CLIL methodology is argued to be a descendant of French immersion programs in Canada and North American bilingual education (Perez-Canado, 2012: 316). The methodology turned out to be effective in various educational settings and at different levels (linguistic, cognitive, subject content, and attitudinal). European international schools for students with different native languages also demonstrated significant progress of teaching non-language subjects in more than one additional language. Geography of CLIL research and implementation is becoming broader these days, expanding on such European countries as the UK, Germany, Spain, Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands, Austria, Sweden and some others (Perez-Canado, 2012: 316-320). Ukraine belongs to the countries where CLIL methodology is being successfully piloted at various educational levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary (Tarasenkova, Akulenko, Kulish, Nekoz, 2021). Theoretical foundations and practical application of CLIL have been given serious consideration in the works of D. Coyle (2005; 2007), D. Coyle, P. Hood & D. Marsh (2010), D. Coyle & O. Meyer (2021), P. Ball, K. Kelly & J. Clegg (2019). The scope of non-language disciplines taught according to CLIL principles enlarges notably.
Major issues. The pioneering researchers of CLIL consider it to be neither a new form of language education nor a new form of subject education. The novelty of the methodology lies in an innovative fusion of content and language (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010: 1). Being flexible and adaptable to a wide range of contexts, CLIL, nonetheless, has a sustainable theoretical basis that distinguishes it from other educational approaches.
D. Coyle (2005) points out four guiding principles of CLIL methodology, or 4Cs: content, communication, cognition, culture. Content, or the subject learnt, is considered to be the driving force of the learning process, the starting point of designing classroom materials. Communication presupposes developing the skills of foreign language communication within the limits outlined by the content. A student learns grammar and vocabulary accompanying a particular subject theme. Cognition is related to developing learners' thinking skills through various tasks aimed to activate mental processes of perceiving, processing, structuring information within the learnt subject area. Culture is regarded as an inseparable component of communication, thus raising cultural awareness is a necessary component of an educational process.
In the academic writing context, 4Cs are specified with regard to the needs of the discipline. Content is related to the structure of academic texts (or their constituent parts) of various genres (term-papers, summaries, essays, abstracts, journal articles, etc.) as well as to the procedure of writing such texts. Communication is associated with the knowledge of language material (mostly lexical and grammatical) typical of academic texts. Cognition presupposes developing the strategies of processing and structuring information objectified in an academic text. Culture is linked with raising awareness of cross-cultural differences in creating academic texts, for instance, differences in authorization, citing, and referencing rules. D. Coyle, P. Hood & M. Marsh note that «a CLIL teacher has the opportunity to scaffold new content through familiar language, or to scaffold new language through the use of familiar content» (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010: 96), thus summarizing and recalling before moving on.
The term «scaffolding» was introduced by D. Wood, J. Bruner, and G. Ross and understood as a «process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts» (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976: 90). The tutor controls only those elements of the task which are «initially beyond the learner's capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence». The researchers consider that the learner can potentially benefit much more from the process of fulfilling the task than from an assisted completion of the task. As a result, the learners develop task competence at a pace that would far outstrip their unassisted efforts (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976).
It should be noted that scaffolding provides learners not only with the support to accomplish the tasks set to them but it gives them the opportunity to obtain first-hand experience. As Brian J. Reiser emphasizes, «for educational settings, it is important to stress the dual aspects of both (a) accomplishing the task and (b) learning from one's efforts, that is, improving one's performance on the future tasks in the process. If learners are assisted in the task but are not able to understand or take advantage of the experience, the assistance will have been local to that instance of scaffolding but will not have provided support for learning» (Reiser, 2004: 275). Thus, scaffolding is expected to provide support and further engagement of learners in the learning process where they can rely on and apply the experience they have got. teaching academic writing
J. McKenzie who focuses on scaffolding in the context of student research in school points at eight characteristics of scaffolding such as providing clear directions, clarifying purpose, keeping students on task, offering assessment to clarify expectations, pointing students to worthy sources, reducing uncertainty, surprise and disappointment, delivering efficiency and creating momentum (McKenzie, 1999). These characteristics seem to be true for teaching students writing in CLIL as well as CLIL implies the use of only authentic materials which are intended for native speakers and can represent real life situations and which are thoroughly selected and converted into class activities by the teacher to reach the goal.
P. Ball, K. Kelly & J. Clegg (2019: 175) identify seven principles for material design: (1) the primacy of `task', (2) prioritizing the three dimensions of content, (3) guiding input and supporting output, (4) scaffolding and embedding, (5) making key language salient, (6) the concept of `difficulty' in didactic materials, (7) thinking in sequences. The description of the mentioned principles is taken from the book «Putting CLIL into Practice» by P. Ball, K. Kelly & J. Clegg (2019).
The primacy of the task presupposes its goal- oriented interactive character with special attention paid to correctly prioritizing the task in an activity instruction. In CLIL, major focus is on content which is regarded as a three-dimensional concept: any activity or task should be viewed as the teaching of conceptual content, by means of procedural devices, using specific language of the particular subject context.
Guiding student input is aimed at easing the difficulty of decoding the meanings when reading and listening / watching; language-sensitive activities are good tools to achieve this aim. Supporting student output presupposes fostering the productive skills of speaking and writing. Students of a CLIL classroom receive constant language support from the teacher which can be more explicit (called scaffolding) or more implicit (called embedding). In case of scaffolding the learners is made aware of what language they use for the particular content while in case of embedding the language materials are just the vehicles for the procedures learnt. The principle of making key language salient is closely related to scaffolding and embedding. Salience of language is achieved, for example, by providing languageblocks with the essential topical vocabulary. Thus, the process of learning a foreign language becomes more conscious. The difficulty of the material is a rather subjective concept leveraged by the task set: «There is no such thing as an easy or difficult text; there are only easy or difficult tasks» (Ball, Kelly & Clegg, 2019: 206).
An important issue to be considered by the teacher when designing classroom materials is sequencing. As P. Ball, K. Kelly & J. Clegg argue (2019: 33), «a sequence is a succession of related activities and tasks, usually culminating in some form of assessment». The length of the sequence can vary from a single class to the whole semester. Sequential learning is more important for the content of a CLIL classroom than for a language classroom. There may be no thematic connection between the units of a language classroom while for a subject classroom such connection is of crucial importance.
The teacher of a CLIL classroom is recommended to prioritise content over language - the practice known as conceptual fronting. Language is not assessed as a separate entity but is regarded as the vehicle for the accomplishment of the tasks. Such a task-based approach is directed towards conceptual and procedural content, and language occurs naturally through the given concepts and procedures (Ball, Kelly & Clegg, 2019: 36-37).
The text that follows provides examples of the activities which can be used in a CLIL classroom of academic writing. These activities are related to the theme `Writing a paragraph' and are sequenced in the same way they can be taught in class.
First, students need to be introduced into the concept of a paragraph and its structure. Following the task-based approach the task can be formulated as `Analyze the paragraph structure by studying the given picture' (Fig. 1). The hamburger metaphor and colour-coding facilitate students' understanding of the paragraph structure. Understanding of the paragraph structure can be further supported by the activity `Make inferences about the paragraph structure while watching the video' (Fig. 2).
The students can continue to perceive the paragraph structure by doing the activity `Consider the paragraph structure'. The teacher can suggest analyzing the structure of a short paragraph without in-text citations (Fig. 3) and the structure of a longer paragraph with in-text citations and more complicated content (Fig. 4).
The next step of learning how to write a paragraph is seen as developing the skill to identify the paragraph parts. The activity `Identify the `hamburger' parts of the paragraph and complete the table' is considered helpful for achieving this purpose (Fig. 5).
After acquiring the receptive skills of identifying parts in the already structured paragraph, the students can proceed to acquiring productive skills of organizing ideas into a paragraph. The starting point for developing such skills can be doing the activity `Make a coherent paragraph by arranging the sentences in the correct order' (Fig. 6).
The next activity in the sequence can involve students into the first writing step - `Write the topic sentence of the given paragraph' (Fig. 7).
Logical development of the writing skills is provided by the activity ` Write a concluding sentence to the paragraph' (Fig. 8). The teacher instructs learners to underline the topic sentence in the given paragraph and to write a good concluding sentence to it either by paraphrasing the topic sentence or by summarizing the main points.
Teaching students writing a paragraph implies teaching them how to use transitional signals as transition words always occur throughout the body of a paragraph, making it coherent. Such signals show how two sentences - the following one and the preceding - are interrelated. G. Duigu (2003: 47) groups connectors according to their function: those that are used for listing, for addition, for consequences and for emphasis (Fig. 9).
Fig. 1. Paragraph structure (extracted from https:// cutt.ly/eCZhJvy)
Fig. 2. Screenshot from the video “Recipe for writing” (extracted from https://cutt.ly/OCZkpzO)
Fig. 3. Paragraph without in-text citations (extracted from https://cutt.ly/YC3Hox0)
Fig. 4. Paragraph with in-text citations (extracted from https://cutt.ly/OC3Hbsh)
Fig. 5. Sample paragraph (extracted from https://cutt.ly/1C3JkE4)
The teacher can introduce a more detailed eight-meaning / function chart of transition signals elaborated by A. Oshima, A. Hogue (Fig. 10) in which transitional signals are grouped into ones introducing an additional idea, ones introducing an opposite idea or contrast, ones introducing a choice or alternative, ones introducing restatement or explanation, ones listening in order, ones introducing an example, ones introducing a conclusion or summary, ones introducing a result (Oshima & Hogue, 2006: 27).
Fig. 6. Sentences to be arranged into a paragraph (extracted from https://cutt.ly/yC3ZTjB)
Fig. 7. Paragraph without a topic sentence (extracted from (Oshima & Hogue 2006: 10))
Fig. 8. Paragraph without a concluding sentence (extracted from (Oshima & Hogue 2006: 16))
Students getting familiar with the vivid examples of transition signals, the teacher asks them to mark transition signals in examples of paragraphs on different topics and then to insert the necessary transition words of the paragraph. The typical exercise is given below. The activity `Improve the coherence of the paragraph ' (Fig. 11) aims at improving the coherence of the paragraph below by inserting the necessary transition words from the box.
This type of exercise will prepare students for writing their own paragraphs on a familiar topic with the support of substitution tables and writing frames. The substitution tables and writing frames constructed by the teacher can support the learners' paragraph writing, enabling them to accomplish the task and obtain the experience necessary to write further paragraphs without the teacher's support. P. Ball, K. Kelly, J. Clegg point out that «the input text for creating a substitution table does not necessarily have to come from a textbook. Frequently, content teachers come up with input texts themselves, and creating a substitution table from these involves writing down the script on a paper to identify the key structures that learners need to make their own». Writing frames offer a whole-text structure in the frame and a word list (Ball, Kelly & Clegg, 2019: 164). Thus, the teacher of academic writing can establish interdisciplinary relationships, borrowing the structures from the topical vocabulary of other courses taken by the learners.
Fig. 11. Paragraph with omitted transition signals (extracted from https://cutt.ly/JCL6VPY)
The teacher supports paragraph writing with the activity `Write a paragraph using a frame' (Fig. 12) and instructs learners to write their own paragraph on the familiar topic, for example, the negative influence of the media on children following the `hamburger' model. Learners should use the frame provided by the teacher and insert transition words to make their paragraphs coherent. Learners are recommended to mark different paragraph parts with different colours to demonstrate their understanding of the `hamburger' model - topic sentence, supporting sentence(s) and concluding sentence.
Constructing such writing frames, the teacher can direct students and choose the focus of their attention.
Conclusions
The present study analysed the process of effective learning and teaching in CLIL which is based on seven principles for material design: the primacy of `task', prioritizing the three dimensions of content, guiding input and supporting output, scaffolding and embedding, making key language salient, the concept of `difficulty' in didactic materials, and thinking in sequences. Paragraph-level support activities elaborated for academic writing classes demonstrate how these principles are realised in practice and how the teacher can encourage learners to interact, challenge them to create new knowledge and develop new skills, providing learners with appropriate support activities. Stimulating learners' activity through input and monitoring the level of familiarity and novelty in both content and language in scaffolded learning contribute to improving students' competence in a foreign language and in writing academic papers.
Fig. 12. Writing frame for construing a paragraph
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ball P., Kelly K., Clegg J. Putting CLIL into Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. 320 p.
2. Coyle D. CLIL: Planning Tools for Teachers. Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 2005. URL: https://cutt.ly/ pC2Glyg (Last Accessed: 26.06.2022).
3. Coyle D. Content and Language Integrated Learning: Towards a Connected Research Agenda for CLIL Pedagogies. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2007. № 10 (5). P. 543-562.
4. Coyle D., Hood P., Marsh M. CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 173 p.
5. Coyle D., Meyer O. Beyond CLIL: Pluriliteracies Teaching for Deeper Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021. 226 p.
6. Duigu G. Essay Writing for English Tests. Cammeray: Academic English Press, 2003. 68 p. URL: https://cutt.ly/ hC2GAwk (Last Accessed: 12.08.2022).
7. McKenzie J. Scaffolding for Success. The Educational Technology Journal. 1999. Vol. 9. № 4. December 1. URL: http://fno.org/dec99/scaffold.html (Last Accessed: 22.08.2022).
8. Oshima A., Hogue A. Writing Academic English. Pearson Longman, 2006. 4th edition. 345 p. URL: https://anyflip. com/cxaxs/zziz (Last Accessed: 12.09.2022).
9. Perez-Canado M. L. CLIL Research in Europe: Past, Present, and Future. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2012. № 15 (3). P 315-341.
10. Reiser B. J. Scaffolding Complex Learning: The Mechanisms of Structuring and Problematizing Student Work. The Journal of the Learning Sciences. 2004. 13(3), P. 273-304. URL: https://cutt.ly/tC2G0Kw (Last Accessed: 01.09.2022).
11. Tarasenkova N., Akulenko I., Kulish I., Nekoz I. Preconditions and Preparatory Steps of Implementing CLIL for Future Mathematics Teachers. University Journal of Educational Research. 2020. № 8 (3). P. 971-982. URL: http://eprints. cdu.edu.ua/4576/ (Last Accessed: 21.06.2022).
12. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1976. 17(2), P. 89-100. URL: https://cutt.ly/ZC2Hr4b (Last Accessed: 22.08.2022).
REFERENCES
1. Ball P., Kelly K., Clegg J. Putting CLIL into Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. 320 p.
2. Coyle D. CLIL: Planning Tools for Teachers. Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 2005. URL: https://cutt.ly/ pC2Glyg (Last Accessed: 26.06.2022).
3. Coyle D. Content and Language Integrated Learning: Towards a Connected Research Agenda for CLIL Pedagogies. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2007. № 10 (5). P. 543-562.
4. Coyle D., Hood P., Marsh M. CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 173 p.
5. Coyle D., Meyer O. Beyond CLIL: Pluriliteracies Teaching for Deeper Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 202l. 226 p.
6. Duigu G. Essay Writing for English Tests. Cammeray: Academic English Press, 2003. 68 p. URL: https://cutt.ly/ hC2GAwk (Last Accessed: 12.08.2022).
7. McKenzie J. Scaffolding for Success. The Educational Technology Journal. 1999. Vol. 9. № 4. December 1. URL: http://fno.org/dec99/scaffold.html (Last Accessed: 22.08.2022).
8. Oshima A., Hogue A. Writing Academic English. Pearson Longman, 2006. 4th edition. 345 p. URL: https://anyflip.com/cxaxs/zziz (Last Accessed: 12.09.2022).
9. Perez-Canado M. L. CLIL Research in Europe: Past, Present, and Future. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2012. № 15 (3). P. 315-341.
10. Reiser B. J. Scaffolding Complex Learning: The Mechanisms of Structuring and Problematizing Student Work. The Journal of the Learning Sciences. 2004. 13(3), P. 273-304. URL: https://cutt.ly/tC2G0Kw (Last Accessed: 01.09.2022).
11. Tarasenkova N., Akulenko I., Kulish I., Nekoz I. Preconditions and Preparatory Steps of Implementing CLIL for Future Mathematics Teachers. University Journal of Educational Research. 2020. № 8 (3). P. 971-982. URL: http://eprints. cdu.edu.ua/4576/ (Last Accessed: 21.06.2022).
12. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1976. 17(2), P. 89-100. URL: https://cutt.ly/ZC2Hr4b (Last Accessed: 22.08.2022).
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