Politization of history and its role on the international relations: theoretical and empirical analysis on example of Polish-German relations

Historical memory of yourself and partner's country. The importance of their in the process of the nation preservation and consolidation. The categories "national memory" and "historical memory". Understanding of these terms and their derivatives.

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
Вид статья
Язык английский
Дата добавления 28.02.2023
Размер файла 37,0 K

Отправить свою хорошую работу в базу знаний просто. Используйте форму, расположенную ниже

Студенты, аспиранты, молодые ученые, использующие базу знаний в своей учебе и работе, будут вам очень благодарны.

The liberal model of historical politics is characterized by the least influence of a State on historical politics, the State acts as kind of observer. Such views of historical politics prevailed during the Kwasniewski presidency, who in his speech before the 1993 parliamentary election stated “today, we, the Democratic Left Alliance, declare that if we are in position to influence governance of Poland we will not be engaged in lustration, we will not destroy monuments (communism - Author's note), we will not rename streets” [Krac^ko, 1996, pp. 127-128]. D. Tusk also stand by that policy. In 1991, being a head of the Liberal Democratic Congress party he stated “" We cannot continue to go round in circles, constantly refer to Czestochowa, the eagle in the crown and the barricades during martial law” (Dudek, 2008, p. 195), thus underlining the depoliticization of the past.

The critical model of historical politics is opposite to the conservative one. The conservative model «cleans up” the history and the critical theory suppose the State should take responsibility for the "dark pages" of history.

The totalitarian model of historical politics has been extensively studied by R. Stobecki, who concluded that the totalitarian model was based on a complete change in public memory. In order to implement that, the state uses propaganda in addition to the media [Wiscicki and Woycicki, p. 15].

The German researchers R. Jessen and K.G. Kracht, who study memory in society issues, and focus on the problem of actors who create the past in bilateral Polish-German relations, emphasize the role of the mass media, defining them as a "daily historian" that create consciousness of citizens regarding the past of their people [Frei, 2003, p. 130]. According to them, mass media, being a powerful communication instrument influences the creation of a pattern of both peoples, Polish and German.

Having studied the basic definitions and approaches to historical politics, we can determine the following results.

There is no compromise in the scientific environment about the concept of "historical politics". Thus, the term "national memory policy" with national connotation is common among Ukrainian scholars. The term "historical politics» which is a calque German "Geschichtspolitik" is popular in Poland. In Germany, the terms "memory of culture", "policy regarding the past" and "policy of memory" are popular [Hahn, 2013, pp. 146-148].

Conclusions

Before presenting the definition of historical politics and the role of actors, we can state that there are two approaches: instrumental and value-based. At the same time, the instrumental approach is inherent in historical politics. On the contrary, the value-based approach is applied to the "policy of the past". In the context of the instrumental approach, we can note that the formation of historical politics is done top to down, that is, from the State and its bodies to the social units. The value -based approach is characterized by initiative in this process of society, which means widening initiatives and visions of the past bottom up.

It should be noted that the value-based approach is characteristic for German historical politics and instrumental for the post-Soviet countries, including Poland.

Historical event and vision of its past by various political and social entities is the objects of historical politics. The actors of historical politics are individuals, social groups and political organizations, the State and its institutions. Depending on the active use of historical politics in the political life of the State, there are four models: conservative, liberal, totalitarian and critical.

Analyzing Polish, German, Russian and Ukrainian approaches to historical politics understanding, the following should be mentioned:

- there is no single approach to understanding “historical politics” concept in the scientific literature. Moreover, the understanding depends on specific historical-political conditions of the State's development;

- the «historical politics" concept is interdisciplinary. Although its introduction is associated with the postpositive revolution in historical science in the late 60's of the XX century, in the 80-90's of the same century it became the object of study in sociology and political science, and in the XXI century in the theory of international relations;

- historical politics is a source of integration of the nation, however ways of historical politics using depend on the same political and historical development of the country and the nation.

Having considered the abovementioned facts, we are presenting our own interpretation of historical memory policy. Thus, historical memory policy is a sphere of political activities of various social units, from individual to State, which manifest itself in conscious action to form a vision of historical events in a society and to use it to building support among society or its groups. It is characterized by a different degree of its presence in a society, from minimum discourse to the maximum; the latter is equivalent to propaganda. Further in the text we will use the term “historical politics” since that would not bring significant changes to our study. At the same time, when considering issues on the formation of the historical politics of Germany we will also use the terms “policy regarding the past”, and “culture of memory”. This is due to approaches to the implementation of historical politics which are described above.

It should be noted that the historical politics version that exists in the countries of Eastern Europe, and especially in Poland and Ukraine, is a more likely and more realistic option. It should be noted that historical politics is a part of national identity and therefore an integral part of the State's activity. Moreover, this element is exacerbated during conflicts or wars on the international area.

Unlike historical politics, the German model of politics regarding the past and culture of memory is, for the most part, an idealistic view of the problem. Even the German policy in this respect has been repeatedly regulated by the State. At the same time, this influence has also taken place in the present, especially in the Centre Against Expulsions issues, which was actively supervised by E. Steinbach. The Federation of Expelled activities as regards compensation for lost property, which from time to time appear in the Polish-German relations, are also active.

national historical memory consolidation

References

1. Adorno, T.W. (no date) "Was bedeutet: Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit.

2. Andrychowicz-Skrzeba, J. (2014) Polityka historyczna w Polsce i Niemczech po roku 1989 w wystapieniach publicznych oraz publikacjach politykow polskich i niemieckich. Warszawa: Katedra Wydawnictwo Naukowe.

3. Assmann J., Czaplicka (1995) `Collective Memory and Cultural Identity', New German Critique, 65, pp. 125-133.

4. Dudek A. (2008) `Spory o polskiej polityce historycznej po 1989 roku', in Nowinowski, S., Pomorski, J., and Stobecki, R. (eds) Pamigc ipolityka historyczna. lodz, pp. 183-201.

5. Frei N. (2003) `Goldhagen, die Deutschen und die Historiker. Uber die Representation des Holocaust im Zeitalter der Visualisierung', in Sabrow, M., Jessen, R., and Kracht, K.G. (eds) Zeitgeschichte als Streitgeschichte: Grofie Kontroversen nach 1945. 1st edn. Munchen: C.H. Beck.

6. Hahn H.H. (2013) `Polityka historyczna a stosunki binarodowe. Glos na rzecz stworzenia kodeksu zachowan polityce pamieci', in Traba, R. and Hahn, H.H. (eds) Polsko-niemieckie miejsca pamieci,. Warszawa: W-wa: Scholar (Refleksje metodologiczne.), pp. 146-161.

7. Huyssen A. (1991) `Afer the Wall. Te Failure of German Intellectuals', New German Critique, (52), pp. 109-143.

8. Interwencje.

9. Kacka K. (2015) `Polityka historyczna: kreatorzy, narzedzia, mechanizmy dzialania - przyklad Polski', in Piechowiak-Lamparskiej, J. and Kackiej, K. (eds) Narracje pamieci miedzy politykq a historiq. Torun: Uniwersitet Mikolaja Kopernika, pp. 59-83.

10. Kobylarz R. (2009) Walka o pamicc. Polityczne aspekty obchodow rocznicy powstania w getcie warszawskim 1944 -1989. Warszawa: Instytut Pamieci Narodowej.

11. Komisji Scigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu, (no date) Ustawa z dnia 26 stycznia 2018 r. o zmianie ustawy o Instytucie Pamieci Narodowej.

12. Kraceko N. (1996) `Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej - legitymizacja przeszlosci', in Tarkowska, E. (ed.) O czasie, politykach i czasiepolitykow. Warszawa, pp. 103-138.

13. Luczewski M., Bednarz-Luczewska P. (2011) `Wie soll man Erinnerungskultur und Geschichtspolitik in Polen und Deutschland untersuchen?', in Luczewski, M. and Wiedmann, J. (eds) Erinnerungskultur des 20. Jahrhunderts: Analysen deutscher und polnischer Erinnerungsorte. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 15-28.

14. Meier Ch. (1997) `Eroffnungsrede zur 36. Versammlung deutsche Historiker in Trier, 8 Oktober 1986', in Augstein, R. (ed.) „Historikerstreit”. Die Dokumentation der Kontroverse um die Einzigartigkeit der nationalsozialistischen Judenvernichtung. Munchen: Piper Verlag, pp. 204-218.

15. Mix A. (no date) `Geschichtspolitik' heifit das Zaubermittel, mit dem Polens Regierung Patrioten erziehen will Zwei.

16. Nijakowski L.M. (2008) Polskapolitykapamieci: esej socjologiczny. Warszawa: Wydawn. Akademickie i Profesjonalne. co chodzi z tq ustawq o IPN? Tlumaczymy, kto sie cieszy, a kto ma pretensje (no date) wiadomosci.pl.

17. Olszewski E. (2013) `Pami^c spoleezna i polityka historyczna w programach polskich partii politycznych', Srodkowoeuropejskie StudiaPolityczne, (2), pp. 67-98. doi:10.14746/ssp.2013.2.05.

18. Rozmowa z Boguslawem Sonikiem:Walka o Polske, regiony i Europe (no date).

19. Santora M. (no date) Poland's `Death Camp' Law Tears at Shared Bonds of Suffering With Jews, NYTimes.

20. Saryusz-Wolska (2009) `Wprowadzenie', in Sugiera, M. (ed.) Pamiec zbiorowa i kulturowa. Wspolczesna perspektywa niemiecka. Krakow: Towarzystwo Autorow i Wydawcow Prac Naukowych UNIVERSITAS, pp. 7-38.

21. Traba R. (2004) `Pamiec zbiorowa - rozwazania o „historycznych mozliwosciach poslugiwania sie nowoczesnymi koncepcjami badania pamieci', in Ciesielski, S. and Marszalek, A. (eds) Wokol historii i polityki. Studia z dziejow XIX i XX wieku dedykowane Profesorowi Wojciechowi Wrzesinskiemu w siedemdziesiqtq rocznice urodzin. Torun: Wydaw. Adam Marszalek, pp. 871-882.

22. UK p L, P.E. (2018T07:34) `Ambassador @ArkadyRzegocki's letter in response to Jan Gross' article “Poland's death camp law is designed to falsify history” published in @FinancialTimes @FT on 6th February.pic.twitter.com/VgfQATVRlX', @PolishEmbassyUK.

23. Wawrzyniak J. (2013) `O zwi^zkach kultury pamieci i wyobrazni socjologicznej', in Traba, R., Hahn, H.H., and Gorny, M. (eds) Polsko-niemieckie miejscapamieci: refleksje metodologiczne. Warszawa: Scholar, pp. 233-241.

24. Wilkiewicz Z. (2011) `Geschichtspolitik, Gedachtnisorte und europaische Erinnerung im deutsch-polnischen Kontext', Aktuelle Ostinformationen, 43(3), pp. 15-31.

25. Wiscicki T., Woycicki K. (no date) `O sporach wokol polityki historycznej w ostatnich latach dvskutuja: Andrzej Friszke, Dariusz Gawin, Rafal Stobiecki i Kazimierz Woycicki oraz Tomasz Wiscicki', pp. 11-32.

26. Wolff-Poweska A. (2007) `Polskie spory o historic i pamiec: polityka historyczna', PrzeglqdZachodni, 63(1), pp. 3-44.

27. Wolf-Powieska A. (2011) Pamiec - Brzemie i uwolnienie. Niemcy wobec nazistowskiej przeszlosci (1945 -2010). Poznan: Wyd. Zysk i S-ka.

28. Wolfrum E. (1999) `Geschichtspolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. 1949 -1989. Phasen und Kontroversen', in Wolfrum, E. and Bock, P. (eds) Umkampfe Vergangenheit. Geschichtsbilder, Erinnerung und Vergangenheitspolitik im internationalen Vergleich,. Gottingen, pp. 55-81.

29. Woycicki K. (2004) Niemiecki rachunek sumienia Niemcy wobec przeszlosci 1933-1945. Wroclaw: Atut.

30. Zaborski M. (2011) Wspolczesne pomniki i miejsca pamieci w polskiej i niemieckiej kulturze politycznej. Torun: Wydaw. Adam Marszalek.

31. Ziemer K. (2011) `Erinnerungs- und Gedenkkultur in Deutschland nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg', in Rill, B. (ed.) Nationales Gedachtnis in Deutschland und Polen. Munchen: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung, pp. 7-41.

32. Artog F. (2002) `Vremya i istoriya. 'Kak pisat' istoriyu Frantsii'?', in Igorevna, G.YA., Luchitskaya Svetlana (ed.), Lyaminoy, Ye. (tran.) Annaly na rubezhe vekov: antologiya. Moskva: XXI vek: Soglasiye, p. 284. [Артог, Ф. (2002) `Время и история. 'Как писать историю Франции'?', in Игоревна, Г.Я., Лучицкая Светлана (ed.), Ляминой, Е. (tran.) Анналы на рубеже веков: антология. Москва: XXI век: Согласие]

33. Батурин А. (no date) Вспомнить все. С кем может поссорить Украину её история - ФОКУС [Батурин, А. Вспомнить все. С кем может поссорить Украину её история - ФОКУС], Focus.ua.

34. Volyanyuk O. (2012) `Novitni viziyi polityky pam"yati: derzhavnyts'kyy monoloh vs demokratychnyy polil", Natsional'na ta istorychna pam"yat'.: Zb. nauk. prats', (2), pp. 178-187. [Волянюк О. (2012) `Новітні візії політики пам'яті: державницький монолог vs демократичний поліл', Національна та історична пам'ять.: Зб. наук. праць, (2), pp. 178187.]

35. Volyanyuk O. (2013) `Konflikty pam"yatey u politychnomu prostori: teoretychni aspekty", Natsional'na ta istorychna pam"yat'.: Zb. nauk. prats', (6), pp. 41-55. [Волянюк, О. (2013) `Конфлікти пам'ятей у політичному просторі: теоретичні аспекти', Національна та історична пам'ять.: Зб. наук. праць, (6), pp. 41-55.]

36. Viyatrovych V. (2019) Yakoyu povynna buty polityka natsional'noyi pam"yati? Try skladovi Novyny [В'ятрович, В. (2019) Якою повинна бути політика національної пам'яті? Три складові. Новини на] Gazeta.ua.

37. Hon M.M. (2012) `Ukrayins'ka istorychna pam"yat': osoblyvosti formuvannya v chas demokratychnoho tranzytu", Panorama politolohichnykh studiy: Naukovyy visnyk Rivnens'koho derzhavnoho humanitarnoho universytetu [Гон М.М. (2012) `Українська історична пам'ять: особливості формування в час демократичного транзиту', Панорама політологічних студій: Науковий вісник Рівненського державного гуманітарного університету], (8).

38. Zerniy Y.U. (2008) `Derzhavna polityka pamiyati v Ukrayini: stanovlennya ta suchasnyy stan", Stratehichni priorytety, (3), pp. 41-51 [Зерній Ю. (2008) `Державна політика пам'яті в Україні: становлення та сучасний стан', Стратегічні пріоритети, (3), pp. 41-51.]

39. Kasyanov G. (2007) `Golodomor i stroitel'stvo natsii', Pro et Contra, 11(3), pp. 24-43. [Касьянов, Г. (2007) `Голодомор и строительство нации', Pro et Contra, 11(3), pp. 24-43.]

40. Kasyanov G., Miller A. (2011) Rossiya-Ukraina: Kak pishetsya istoriya. Dialogi - lektsii - stat'i. Moskva: RGGU. [Касьянов, Г. and Миллер, А. (2011) Россия-Украина: Как пишется история. Диалоги - лекции - статьи. Москва: РГГУ.]

41. Kyrydon A. (2010) `Istoryk ta polityka pam"yati: «rozshcheplena identychnist'", Chornomors'kyy litopys, (2), pp. 116-120. [Киридон, А. (2010) `Історик та політика пам'яті: «розщеплена ідентичність', Чорноморський літопис, (2), pp. 116-120.]

42. Kyrydon A. (2011) `Masky pam"yati» v umovakh suspil'nykh zlamiv", Chornomors'kyy litopys, (2), pp. 161-170. [Киридон, А. (2011) `Маски пам'яті» в умовах суспільних зламів', Чорноморський літопис, (2), pp. 161-170.]

43. Kyrydon A. (2016) `Polityka pam"yati v umovakh demokratiyi: vshanuvannya zhertv henotsydiv ta masovykh ubyvstv", Ukrayina-Yevropa-Svit. Mizhnarodnyy zbirnyk naukovykh prats'.. Seriya: Istoriya, mizhnarodni vidnosyny, (17), pp. 216-236. [Киридон А. (2016) `Політика пам'яті в умовах демократії: вшанування жертв геноцидів та масових убивств', Україна-Європа-Світ. Міжнародний збірник наукових праць.. Серія:: Історія, міжнародні відносини, (17), pp. 216-236.]

44. Miller A. (2007) `Rossyya: vlast' y ystoryya", Pro et Contra, 11(3), pp. 6-24. [Міллер А. (2007) `Россия: власть и история', Pro et Contra, 11(3), pp. 6-24.]

45. Mink Z.H. (2009) `Heopolityka, prymyrennya ta ihry z mynulym: na shlyakhu do novoyi poyasnyuval'noyi paradyhmy kolektyvnoyi pam"yati", Ukrayina Moderna, 4(15), pp. 63-77. [Мінк, Ж. (2009) `Геополітика, примирення та ігри з минулим: на шляху до нової пояснювальної парадигми колективної пам'яті', Україна Модерна, 4(15), pp. 63-77.]

46. Mink Z.H., Neymayyer L. (2007) Yevropa ta yiyi bolisni mynuvshyny. Translated by YE. Maricheva. Kyyiv: Nika-Tsentr. [Мінк, Ж. and Неймайєр, Л. (2007) Європа та її болісні минувшини. Translated by Є. Марічева. Київ: Ніка-Центр.]

47. Nahorna L. (2012) Istorychna pam"yat': teoriyi, dyskursy, refleksiyi. Kyyiv: IPiEND im. I.F. Kurasa NAN Ukrayiny. [Нагорна, Л. (2012) Історична пам'ять: теорії, дискурси, рефлексії. Київ: ІПіЕНД ім. І.Ф. Кураса НАН України.]

48. Opalko Y.U. (2009) `Vzayemodiya hromads'kykh orhanizatsiy z orhanamy vlady u realizatsiyi derzhavnoyi polityky pam"yati", Stratehichni priorytety, (3), pp. 42-49. [Опалько Ю. (2009) `Взаємодія громадських організацій з органами влади у реалізації державної політики пам'яті', Стратегічні пріоритети, (3), pp. 42-49.]

49. Polyans'kiy V. (1999) `Istoricheskaya pamyat' v etnicheskom samosoznanii narodov', (3), pp. 14-29. [Полянський В. (1999) `Историческая память в этническом самосознании народов', (3), pp. 14-29.]

50. Soldatenko V. (2011) `Problemy polityky natsional'noyi pam"yati ta zavdannya yiyi naukovoho zabezpechennya", Natsional'na ta istorychna pam"yat'. Polityka pam"yati u kul'turnomu prostori: Zb. nauk. prats', (1), pp. 7-26. [Солдатенко В. (2011) `Проблеми політики національної пам'яті та завдання її наукового забезпечення', Національна та історична пам'ять. Політика пам'яті у культурному просторі: Зб. наук. праць, (1), pp. 7-26.]

51. Stel'makh S. (2006) `Peredmova. «Teoriya mozhlyvykh istoriy» Reynharda Kozelleka: tradytsiya ta innovatsiya", in Chasovi plasty. Doslidzhennya z teoriyi istoriyi. Zi stateyu Hanea- Heorha Hadamera. Kyyiv: Dukh i Litera, pp. 7-19. [Стельмах С. (2006) `Передмова. «Теорія можливих історій» Рейнгарда Козеллека: традиція та інновація', in Часові пласти. Дослідження з теорії історії. Зі статею Ганеа-Георга Гадамера. Київ: Дух і Літера, pp. 7-19]

52. Yakovenko N. (2007) Vstup do istoriyi. Kyyiv: Krytyka. [Яковенко, Н. (2007) Вступ до історії. Київ: Критика.]

Размещено на Allbest.ru

...

Подобные документы

  • Memory, Teaching and his types. Why we need teaching of memory. Short-term and protracted memory: oppositions and coincidences. Short-term memory and methods of his improvement. Listening of methods is in translation. Scholars of research of listening.

    дипломная работа [45,4 K], добавлен 10.07.2009

  • The term food preservation, historical methods of preservation. The process of smoking, salting, freezing, fermentation, thermal process, enclosing foods in a sterile container, chemical additive to reduce spoilage, using radiation for food preservation.

    контрольная работа [27,4 K], добавлен 08.05.2009

  • Society is a system of relations. Public relations is relationships that arise between people in the course of their activities in various spheres of public life. They can be classified according to their object, subject, nature of relations between them.

    реферат [13,6 K], добавлен 14.05.2011

  • Background on Semantic Change. The Importance of History in Our Own Lives. History Contributes to Moral Understanding. Experience in Assessing Past Examples of Change. Categories of semantic change. Metaphorical extension is the extension of meaning.

    контрольная работа [36,6 K], добавлен 07.06.2012

  • Researching of the destiny of some Jews's families hiding from nazists with Anne Frank. This is the story of what might have happened if the boy in hiding survived to become a man. This is a novel about the memory of death, the death of memory.

    топик [748,2 K], добавлен 12.11.2010

  • The word "family" is connected with warm relations between members. Family relations. Both the husband and the wife create their future together. Children should love and respect the parents. A family role in children's formation of individuality.

    топик [11,2 K], добавлен 04.02.2009

  • The war of the Roses is a very important period for the British culture and history. Exposure of the dates and importance of some events for the Lancastrians and the Yorkists. Searching the peculiarities in the background of different things and events.

    курсовая работа [39,2 K], добавлен 16.02.2010

  • The process of translation, its main stages. Measuring success in translation, its principles. Importance of adequacy in translation, cognitive basis and linguistics. Aspects of cognition. Historical article and metaphors, especially their transfer.

    курсовая работа [48,6 K], добавлен 24.03.2013

  • Geographical position of The United States of America. Distribution of the National parks. History of the National Parks in the country. Major and Minor parks. Tourist trades and campings. The Grand Canyon is awe inspiring and the Grand Canyon KOA.

    курсовая работа [52,8 K], добавлен 23.12.2012

  • Example of "simple linear progression". Additive. adversative. temporal textual connector. Anaphoric relations and their use in fairy tales. Major types of deictic markers: person deixis, place deixis, time deixis, textual deixis, social deixis.

    творческая работа [300,8 K], добавлен 05.07.2011

  • Borrowing as a method of new word formation. History of military borrowing from Latin and Old Norse. The etymology and modern functions of military loanwords. The use of borrowed terms in historical fiction and fantasy genre. Non-military modern meanings.

    курсовая работа [274,2 K], добавлен 08.05.2016

  • Russian holidays it is the holidays of Russian people connected with widespread national traditions of their carrying out. For the state holidays the combination of what remained from the previous historical periods, and new, come to a life finding.

    реферат [18,7 K], добавлен 08.10.2009

  • Consideration on concrete examples of features of gramatical additions of the offer during various times, beginning from 19 centuries and going deep into historical sources of origin of English language (the Anglo-Saxon period of King Alfred board).

    курсовая работа [37,7 K], добавлен 14.02.2010

  • Pilgrims, puritans in new England: historical, descriptive writers. The new England clergy: Theology in New England. The first half of the century, the personal touch. The revolutionary period. Writers of new York and Pennsylvania. Poetry, South, North.

    дипломная работа [269,7 K], добавлен 21.07.2009

  • The process of scientific investigation. Contrastive Analysis. Statistical Methods of Analysis. Immediate Constituents Analysis. Distributional Analysis and Co-occurrence. Transformational Analysis. Method of Semantic Differential. Contextual Analysis.

    реферат [26,5 K], добавлен 31.07.2008

  • Some historical facts about fairy tales in English and in Kazakh and its classification. The comparative analysis of English and Kazakh fairy tales: "Wolf and kids" and "The Wolf and three kittens". The national originality of folklore of each people.

    реферат [33,3 K], добавлен 26.03.2013

  • Alexander Graham Bell was the inventor of the telephone (1876). He was born in Scotland. His family life. An idea of inventing a special machine for deaf people. Burial-place inventor of. Respect of the Alexander Bell memory subsequent to his death.

    презентация [942,8 K], добавлен 12.01.2011

  • Historical background of the History of English. Assimilative Vowel Changes: Breaking and Diphthongisation. Old English phonetics and grammar. Morphological classification of nouns. Evolution of the grammatical system. Personal and possessive pronouns.

    курс лекций [104,6 K], добавлен 23.07.2009

  • Classical and modern theories of the international trade. Concept and laws of development of the international trade. Structure and the basic commodity streams of the international trade at the present stage of development. Foreign trade of the Russia.

    курсовая работа [15,8 K], добавлен 25.02.2009

  • History of the English language, its causes and global distribution. His role in global communication between peoples and as a major business. Comparison of British and American dialects. Proof of the importance of their various teaching for pupils.

    курсовая работа [119,7 K], добавлен 26.06.2015

Работы в архивах красиво оформлены согласно требованиям ВУЗов и содержат рисунки, диаграммы, формулы и т.д.
PPT, PPTX и PDF-файлы представлены только в архивах.
Рекомендуем скачать работу.