An explanatory combinatorial dictionary of English conflict lexis: a case study of modern political discourse

CI.8 Modificative^-Ao(x)L: American /European / Canadian / Japanese / international/western sanctions: Hungary's Prime Minister reiterated his opposition to European sanctions against Russia (The Telegraph on MSN.com, 16.09).

CI.9 Determinative^-Prnposs(x)L: the US - their sanctions: The West lifts its sanctions against Russia and Russian companies, heightening a stand-off between Russia and the continent (Forbes, 06.09).

УШІ

CII.1 Indirect-objectival/modificative^-LprepNy: sanctions against Russia / sanctions on Iran: The Western sanctions against Russia were a reasonable non-violent response (wral.com, 09.09).

CII.2 Modificative^-Ao(y)L: anti-Russian / Russian / Iranian sanctions: With Russian sanctions in place on Russian oil, choices are limited (Market Watch, 15.08).

CII.3 Modificative^N(y)L: Russia sanctions: US unveils new Russia sanctions, implements ban on new imports of Russian gold (CNN, 28.06).

ZoIII

CIII.1 Modificative^-AoL: economic / financial / diplomatic /political / disciplinary / nuclear sanctions: Russia claims punitive economic sanctions imposed by the West are responsible for the indefinite halt to gas supplies via Europe (CNBC, 06.09).

CIII.2 Modificative^-AoVedL: nuclear-related sanctions: Even if the U.S. lifts nuclear-related sanctions under a new deal, numerous other American sanctions on Iran would remain (Politico, 24.08).

W о IV

CIV.1 Indirect-objectival / modificative^-LprepN: sanctions for violation of the international law: Washington and its allies aim to cut off energy imports from Russia in line with sanctions over its war on Ukraine (The Hill, 27.06). CIV.2 Indirect-objectival / modificative^-LprepVingN: sanctions for `beginning' invasion: European leaders have accused the Kremlin of using its energy to punish and blackmail the bloc over sanctions for invading Ukraine (Forbes, 22.08).

Possible complex syntactic cooccurrence

CI.1-5+CU.1-3+CIH.1-2+CIV.1-2: As part of American sanctions against Russia for its unprovoked invasion of Ukraine, U.S. officials have stepped up efforts to seize the ruling elite's toys and assets (The New York Times, 10.04).

Impossible

CII.1+CII.2-3: Russia/n sanctions against Russia ¦ Passive valence syntactic cooccurrence

1. Direct-objectival^-VtransL: impose / announce /evade /face / lift /avoid / enforce / tighten / violate / increase / apply / support / breach / bolster / bypass / ease / join / slap / implement/ introduce / strengthen / expand sanctions: Russia will face additional sanctions and become even more of a global pariah than it is now (The Washington Post, 03.08).

2. Indirect-objectival^VprepL: speak about sanctions: The way we tend to think about sanctions is an alternative to war (The New York Times, 01.04).

3. Modificative^-LN: sanction/s package / list / weapon / rules / targets / regime / policy / strategy / tools / campaign / club: Its owner is not on the E.U. sanction list even (New York Magazine, 17.03).

4. Modificative/ Direct-objectival^-LNverbal: sanction enforcement / violations /restrictions /breaches /exemptions: Sanction restrictions - how the grain sector is adapting to the new reality (CNN, 12.05).

5. Modificative^AoL: new / significant / severe / fresh / tough / strong sanctions: A common ground between the United Kingdom and the U.S. has been its heavy sanctions against Russia (Washington Examiner, 05.09).

6. Modificative^-AcomL: tougher / harsher / stronger / stricter sanctions: The NATO lawmakers approved a resolution calling for stronger sanctions against Russia (The Denver Post, 30.05).

7. Modificative^AsupL: latest / toughest sanctions: The White House is expected to allow toughest sanctions on controversial Russian gas pipeline (CNN, 10.03).

8. Modificative^-VingL: crippling / sweeping / existing / increasing / punishing / blocking sanctions: It prompted sweeping economic sanctions against Russia and military support for Ukraine from Washington and its Western allies (Reuters, 14.09).

9. Modificative^VedL: reimposed / imposed / increased / proposed / renewed/coordinated/limited sanctions: He once again calledfor increased sanctions against Russia, including its entire banking sector and oil industry (Washington Examiner, 18.04).

10. Modificative^Num-N-L: 12-point sanction / 250$-a-day sanction: The EUextended its six-month sanctions against Russia (Time, 09.09).

(a) Lexical cooccurrence (lexical functions)

Sync discipline

Syn3 punishment, coercion

Synn penalty

Anti support, permission, approval

Conv sanction (in the meaning of approval)4

Gener measure, policy

Figur blockade, boycott

Si sanctioner

S2 target [of sanctions]

Ai sanctionable

A2 sanctionative

A3 sanctionless

A4 sanctioned

Vo sanction

Sinstr embargo, ban, restriction, prohibition

The next round of sanctions against Russia includes an oil embargo (The Guardian on MSN.com).

Sloc foreign policy, diplomacy, economy

Sres negative effects, material costs

Sing round of

Member nations are expected to approve another round of sanctions targeting Russia's defense industry and technology sector (Defense One, 11.07).

Mult list of, range of, set of

The Biden administration has banned energy imports as part of a set of sanctions against Mr. Putin (The New York Times, 08.04).

LocinCentr amidst

The Russian rouble has devalued in the wake of the invasion and amidst sanctions (Fox News, 07.03).

Ai under [sanctions]

Russian banks are under sanctions (The Nation, 06.08).

Able sanctionable, sanctioned

Department also issued guidance on its website warning that gold- related transactions involving Russia may be sanctionable by U.S. authorities (Reuters, 24.03).

Magn

[AntiBon + toughest, harshest, biggest, maximal

Russia now finds itself targeted by the toughest sanctions ever agreed against Moscow by the EU, US and UK (International Business Times, 26.02).

Magn] lighter, lesser, mild

The Treasury department hit other institutions with lesser sanctions, including Alfa bank (New York Times, 01.03).

Magntemp prolonged, continuous

European Commission said that the "reinforced, prolonged EU sanctions against the Kremlin" send "a strong signal to Moscow (The Washington Post, 16.03).

Magnquant substantial, relevant

The U.S. and Europe have pledged to hold Moscow accountable, with more damaging and substantial sanctions against Russia now being readied by western powers (CNBC, 24.02).

Ver punitive, disciplinary

The United States and European allies are looking to step up punitive sanctions on Russia for invading Ukraine (Euronews.com, 06.03).

Bon appropriate, proper, effective, powerful, Washington should hit Moscow with the most effective sanctions possible against Russia's financial system (The National Interest, 28.02).

Pred sanction

Singapore will restrict military and high-tech exports to Russia and sanction four Russian banks (Forbs, 03.05).

Operi impose, place, put, issue, introduce

The U.S. and the U.K. plan to impose sanctions against Russia in reaction to the latest developments (Business Insider, 25.02).

IncepOperi initiate, levy

The United States and European Union have levied sanctions on Russia's biggest banks and its elite (TwinCities.com, 01.03).

IncepInvolvOper1 join

Serbia rejects Western calls to join sanctions on Russia (ABC, 25.02).

ContOper1 keep, maintain

Evidence that Russian troops murdered hundreds of Ukrainian civilians is leading some U.S. lawmakers to insist that America and its allies keep sanctions on Moscow so long as Vladimir Putin remains in power (Politico, 06.04).

FinOper1 end

French far-right leader Marine Le Pen called for Europe to end sanctions against Russia to avoid a blackout (YahooFinance, 02.08).

LiquOper1 remove, waive, exempt

A growing number of Italians want to remove sanctions against Russia (Politico, 05.09).

Oper2 face, get

Get up to speed: Russia faces sanctions for 'beginning' invasion (CNN, 24.02).

ContOper2 be under

If Ukraine will fall, Putin will not stop... especially when Russia is under sanctions... (Washington Examiner, 26.03).

FinOper2 evade, escape, avoid

Metals Giant Avoids Sanctions. So far, the U.S. and its allies haven't sanctioned Russia's MMC (MarketWatch, 07.03).

LiquOper2 circumvent, breach, bypass, undermine

The U.S. and its allies were shutting down Russia's ability to use gold to circumvent sanctions (The New York Times, 24.03).

F1 = IncepPred extend, expand, lift, enforce, tighten, toughen, increase, escalate,

Plusrefl strengthen, intensify

The EU must leave itself with an ability to significantly tighten and escalate sanctions should Russia hit back (Politico, 31.03).

Though not fully living up to MTT's requirements and its well-developed lexicographic metalanguage, both the project of the proposed dictionary and the entry microstructure utilize some of its basic lexicographic concepts, having theoretical orientation and formalized character as its distinctive properties.

Conclusion

The results of the study are significant in at least three respects. Firstly, they contribute new findings and additional evidence, suggesting that computer technologies, including computational and corpus linguistics, are relevant to lexicography. The current findings add to a growing body of literature on computerized compilation of dictionaries, based on large electronic text corpora, proving that corpus-based technologies support lexicographical practice and enhance the quality and consistency of the resulting dictionary. Moreover, the analysis and interpretation of the corpus data by the researcher can be improved by automated linguistic analysis of language samples, which offers different views on the data by various types of sorting and rearranging options according to the criteria set by the lexicographer (frequency lists, reverse lists, collocations with the keyword, distribution over the sources, etc., supported by statistical tools). Secondly, the use of electronic text corpora offers an effective way for compiling a specialized discoursed-based dictionary that particularly focuses on a specific subject area, embedding the lexicographic data in the social, political, and geopolitical contexts. The specific subject area in the proposed dictionary merges political and conflict types of discourse as politics often becomes a platform for conflict deployment and conflict escalation. Thirdly, though based on the data of “language in context”, being primarily an object of discourse analysis, the dictionary is designed on the principles of MTT from the viewpoint of text synthesis, successfully applied to its compilation (including both collecting the data and presenting the information about lexemes). However, the two are not mutually exclusive: the synthetic orientation of the dictionary does not prevent its use for further analysis. Thus, the ECD of English Political Conflict Lexis would cater to specific needs of its targeted user group and would be most helpful for scholars in linguistics, discourse analysis, media and communication, political science, and conflict studies.

The research which is the initial draft stage of compiling the ECD of Political Conflict Lexis has highlighted a number of questions that need to be addressed. They include quality assessment of programming tools, lexicographic sources and methods used, as well as the evaluation of the ECD itself and its microstructure, which calls for an increase in the list of entries and their more user-oriented description. We hope that the answers provided by our further studies will help us compile a full-fledged dictionary of modern political conflict lexis.

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