Ways of generating neologisms in modern English

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Ways of generating neologisms in modern English

Medvid Olena, Malovana Nina, Vashyst Kateryna

Abstract

The article considers the problem of language development, in particular its lexical layer. The rapid development of all areas of modern human life is reflected in the language, the evolution of lexis is not just a change in the vocabulary. The authors study the modern paradigms of neology in terms of a functional approach to language, analyze the factors of the appearance of new words and correlate them with the pragmatic needs of society as a whole and of different social groups in particular.

The article presents the pricipal nominative types and models of English-language neologisms over the past decades. Some factors contributing to the replenishment of the English lexical layer regarding the sociolinguistic aspect are given. Social spheres significantly influence the appearance of new words because they shape a person's attitude to the realities of the linguistic picture of the world.

The relevance of this research is determined by the insufficient study of the processes of lexical formation, in particular neological units, which are intensively occurring at the current stage of society globalization and require an analysis of the ways of formation and definition of critical concepts that cause the need for the functioning of innovative non-standard, both structurally and semantically, lexical units in the modern English language, in particular their systematization and classification. The scientific novelty of the study consists in developing the theory of neology through the classification of borrowings as a particular group of neologisms, systemizing means of their penetration, and adaptation in the modern English language.

The goal of the research is to study the sociolinguistic role of neologisms in the modern English language, to determine their functional and semantic features and ways of speech adaptation, of neologisms-borrowings in particular.

The research methodology is based on the functional-semantic approach and is complex in nature using structural-semantic and sociolinguistic analyses, allowing to identify the most successful and popular universal methods and techniques for creating neologisms; the study also relies on the principles of systematization and classification, which helps to organize empirical material and contributes to a more thorough study of the process of neologization of English-language discourse as the basis of interlanguage communication in the world today.

Анотація

ШЛЯХИ ГЕНЕРАЦІЇ НЕОЛОГІЗМІВ У СУЧАСНІЙ АНГЛІЙСЬКІЙ МОВІ

Медвідь Олена,

кандидат філологічних наук

Сумський державний університет

м.Суми

Мальована Ніна,

кандидат філософських наук

Сумський державний університет

м.Суми

Вашист Катерина,

викладач

Сумський державний університет

м.Суми

Стаття розглядає проблему розвитку мови, зокрема її лексичного прошарку. Бурхливий розвиток усіх областей сучасного людського життя знаходить своє відображення у мові, еволюція лексики - це не просто зміна складових словника. Автори вивчають сучасні парадигми неології в аспекті діяльнісного підходу до мови, аналізують чинники появи нових слів та співвідносять їх з прагматичними потребами суспільства в цілому, і окремих соціальних груп зокрема.

У статті зроблено спробу представити основні номінативні типи і моделі англомовних неологізмів за останні десятиріччя. Наведено низку чинників, які сприяють поповненню лексичного складу англійської мови залежно від соціолінгвальних факторів. Соціальні сфери мають значний вплив на появу нових слів, адже формують ставлення людини до реалій мовної картини світу.

Актуальність даного дослідження визначається недостатньою вивченістю процесів лексикотворення, зокрема неологічних одиниць, що інтенсивно відбуваються на сучасному етапі глобалізації суспільства, і потребують аналізу шляхів утворення і визначення ключових понять, що спричиняють необхідність функціонування інноваційних нестандартних, як структурно, так і семантично, лексичних одиниць в сучасній англійській мові, зокрема їх систематизації і класифікації. Наукова новизна роботи полягає в поглибленні вивчення теорії неології через класифікацію запозичень як особливої групи неологізмів, засобів їх проникнення і адаптації в сучасній англійській мові.

Мета роботи - вивчити соціолінгвальну роль неологізмів в сучасній англійській мові, визначити їх функціонально-семантичні особливості і шляхи мовленнєвої адаптації неологізмів-запозичень зокрема. Методика дослідження базується на функціонально-семантичному підході і носить комплексний характер із використанням структурно-семантичного та соціолінгвального аналізів, дозволяє виявити найвдаліші та найпопулярніші універсальні методи і прийоми креації неологізмів; дослідження також спирається на принципи систематизації та класифікації, що допомагає упорядкувати емпіричний матеріал та сприяє ретельнішому вивченню процесу неологізації англомовного дискурсу як основи міжмовної комунікації сьогодення в світі.

Introduction

neologisms borrowings english language

Nowadays, the English language, like many other languages, is experiencing the so- called "neological boom". A huge flow of new words as a result of socio-political and scientific progress, as well as the globalization of the world, requires their study and systematization. The complex system of identifying new objects and phenomena in the world includes a communicative component, which is the subject of research in many scientific fields, particularly linguistics. Innovative nominations firmly enter the language and expand its lexical system, which determines both the theoretical and practical significance of neologisms' creation and their functioning. This led to the expansion of the research paradigms in neology, in particular, not only the discovery of new words and meanings and the study of their formation means, but also a thorough sociolinguistic analysis of their creation factors, taking into account the functional-semantic approach to their lexicographic processing - this determines the relevance of our study.

The new realities of world dynamics require the acceleration of the nomination process, the study of which led to the appearance of a significant number of scientific works by researchers in the field of neology. The scientific basis of our study is the works of well-known lexicographers R. Burchfield, N. Webster, Ph. Gove, etc., as well as foreign linguists of a later period, including Crystal D. & Davy D. (1969), Barnhart D. K. (1985), Algeo J. (1991), Rey A. (1995), Metcalf A. (2004), Cook P. C. (2010), Rets I. (2016), Clayton D. (2016), Guerra A. R. (2016), etc.

Considering the fact that English is the language of active interlingual communication, anglicisms, especially new Internet era formations, have a tendency to seep into other languages of the world, and Ukrainian in particular. Therefore, Ukrainian linguists are not only interested in but also carefully study English-language neologisms, among them are: Zatsny Yu. (2001, 2010), Levytskyi A. (2005), Fedorenko O. (2005), Selivanova O. (2006), Kovtun K. (2007), Borysova O. (2008), Andrusiak I. (2010), Shutova M. (2010), Holovko O. (2012), Dziubina O. (2014), Ostafiichuk O. (2020) and others.

The goal of the article is to study the sociolinguistic role of neologisms in the modern English language and to determine their functional and semantic features and ways of speech adaptation of neologism borrowings.

The set goal involves solving the following tasks:

1) to investigate the peculiarities of the neologisms' occurrence in various English- language discourses;

2) to analyze the most common spheres of neologisms' functioning;

3) consider the criteria for the systematization of neologisms and neologism borrowings in particular;

4) to study the main sources of the penetration of borrowings into the modern English language and ways of their adaptation as neological units.

The subject of the study is the occurrence peculiarities and functional characteristics of neologisms, in particular neologism borrowings, in various English- language discourses.

Neologisms collected from dictionaries, scientific works, and periodicals of Englishspeaking countries were used as material for empirical analysis.

The research methodology is based on the functional-semantic approach and is complex with the use of structural-semantic and sociolinguistic analyses, allowing to identify of the most successful and popular universal methods and techniques for creating neologisms; the study also relies on the principles of systematization and classification, which helps to organize the material and contributes to a more thorough study of neologization of English-language discourse as the basis of interlingual communication in the world today.

Discussion and research results

Over the past decades, there were published three one-volume supplements to the third edition of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary edited by F. Gove: "6,000 words", "9,000 words", "12,000 words" (MWD, 2022). A significant achievement is also the release of a four-volume supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary edited by R. Burchfield, which contains more than 60,000 dictionary entries and more than half a million illustrated examples (OED, 2022). The peculiarity of neologisms is that they are difficult to record because they can appear situationally and exist for a certain period, reflecting a certain satisfaction, dissatisfaction, or emotional reaction of society to changes. They can remain in the status of occasionalisms and later be forgotten due to a decrease in a certain topic interest. To include a word in the dictionary according to the requirements of the lexicographic center of Oxford University, it must been used for five years, which excludes the possibility of recording so-called "one-day" words. And if at the end of the 20th century, researchers estimated the number of new English words in the range of 12,000 per year (Barnhart, 1985), in 2002, this figure increased by some estimates to 10,000 new words and word forms per day (Metcalf, 2004). The number of neologisms that appear every day in the language of our time is incalculable. Although according to some data (Guerra, 2016), on average, 800 new words appear in the English language per year -- more than in any other language in the world. Replenishment of the language vocabulary is carried out by various means. The patterns of word compounding and word blending are currently decisive in creating new words, but existing words do not stop expanding their meanings too. In our era of globalization, the role of borrowings as a separate layer of neologisms is increasing, filling at an accelerated pace the gaps in the nominations of the results of dynamic progress and seeping into the English language, which functions in all countries of the world now.

Neologisms Taxonomy

A neologism is a new word in the lexicon of one or another language in terms of form or content. Therefore, according to these characteristics, there are distinguished (Crystal&Davy, 1969):

1. Neologisms proper (the novelty of the form is combined with the novelty of the content): bio-computer - a computer that imitates the nervous system of living organisms.

2. Transnomination, which combines the novelty of the word form with the meaning that was previously conveyed by another form: soap opera - a TV drama serial dealing typically with daily events in the lives of the same group of characters, big C - (med.) cancer.

3. Semantic innovations or reinterpretations (a new meaning is indicated by a form that was already in the language): bread - “money”, drag - “nausea”.

Semantic innovations can also be:

1) old words that completely change their meaning, losing the previously existing one;

2) another lexico-semantic variant (LSV) appears in the semantic structure of the word while preserving all the traditional ones: mafia came to mean "any secret organization, closed circle, clan", charisma - "a strong personal attractive force", bummed out - "disappointed" , go-go - "dynamic, modern", etc). The adjective heavy in the new meaning "serious" is widely used in both versions of the English language (British and American): especially in the phrase: It is a heavy question (problem). Semantic neologisms are used in slang to a greater extent than other types of neologisms.

Regarding the way of creation, neologisms are divided into: phonological, borrowed, semantic, and syntactic (Cook, 2010).

Phonological neologisms are formed from individual sounds. They are sometimes called "artificial". The group of these neologisms conditionally includes those formed from exclamations. For example: Zizz - a short sleep (an imitation of a person's sounds in a sleep, often conveyed in comics using the three letters ZZZ). Or qwerty, which is a standard English-language typewriter or computer keyboard on which the first six letters of the second row are q, w, e, r, t, andy (MWD, 2022). Such neologisms have the highest level of novelty connotation and can be classified as “strong neologisms.” The high level of novelty is explained by the unusualness and freshness of their forms.

Borrowed neologisms can also be classified as “strong”. Borrowings have played a vital role since the 13th and 14th centuries, when three languages functioned simultaneously in England: English - the language of the population, French - the language of state and legislative bodies, and Latin - the language of the church and science.

The word formation is an active source of neologisms at all times, involving such processes as: conversion, compression, abbreviation, affixation / de-affixation, stemming, separation of meanings, and other various types of lexical blending.

Affixal units, as a rule, create lexical innovations entirely in line with English word- formation traditions. Therefore, the appearance of derivative neologisms is noticed by native speakers only when they realize the word's new meaning. Affixal units make up 24% of all neologisms and are slightly inferior to complex words. A total of 103 suffixes were used in the formation of new words in the last 20 years: -ability, -able, -ac, -acy, -ance, - ant, -ative, -ed, -ee, -er/or, -ery, - ing, -ion, -ional, -ish, -ism, -ist, etc. Among the prefixes, units of Latin origin prevail: a(n)-, aero-, agri-, anti-, audio-, Euro-, extra-, flexi-, poli-, post-, etc. (Clayton, 2016). For example: antiviral - an antivirus program in a computer, teleshopping - making purchases using a computer or phone, telebanking - a financial organization that allows you to make bank transactions through a computer, superscalar - a computer microprocessor that executes more than one instruction immediately, megadual is something very good. Affixes are increasingly subject to changes and expansion of meaning. Particularly productive are nouns formed from adjectives ending in -ic: acrylic, astigmatic, geriatric, prepsychotic. It is interesting that now this morpheme has expanded its form and meaning: work-aholic - a person who likes to work, clotheaholic - a person who likes clothes.

Conversion is significantly inferior to all other methods of word formation in the English language. Here, the primary model remains Noun - Verb, after which many new words are formed: to leaflet - to issue leaflets, to butterfly - to walk aimlessly around the city. According to the professional parameter, the central mass of converted neologisms is limited in use. As a result of the analysis, neologisms' professional differentiation spheres are distinguished: sports, medicine, computer technology, education, and politics. For example: to access - to treat with needles, to access - to extract data from a computer's storage device (limited to the field of microelectronics), to summit - to participate in a meeting at the highest level (limited to the area of politics) (Ostafiichuk, 2020).

The next way of creating new words is stem composition, for example: ethnic cleansing - mass expulsion or extermination of people of an ethnic minority or religious group in a specific territory, hot button - a result or curiosity that prompts people to make a unique choice, safe haven - a protective zone in a country, intended for members of a religious or ethnic minority (Shutova, 2010).

Separation of meaning is the detachment of a word in one of its meanings into an independent vocabulary unit. For example, the noun "ton" (previously spelled tun) is separated by the meaning of the word tun - "big barrel". The noun pound - "pound sterling" arose as a result of the separation of the meaning "measure of weight". Later, this meaning was separated after, instead of silver, of which the pound was a monetary unit, gold, which differed from silver in weight, was used as money. As under the action of other methods, when the meaning is separated, a new vocabulary unit is formed (Dziubina, 2014).

Abbreviations and acronyms (PC - personal computer, GASP - Group Against Smoke and Pollution) occupy a large place among neologisms.

Thus, morphological neologisms repeat the rules that have long been productive in the English language. However, there is currently an accumulation of neologisms due to the analytical models (lexical blending).

Neologisms are associated with almost all spheres of modern English-speaking society; therefore, they are divided not only by their origin but also by spheres of use (Zatsny, 2002-2009). Due to scientific progress, we can note lexical units that mean types of computers or their components (multi-user - a laptop for several users, neurocomputer - an electronic analogue of the human brain, to trouble-shoot - to destroy part of the data in the computer's memory).

A large number of terminological neologisms emerged in linguistics (interlingual - an artificial language for machine translation, google translator - a translation program).

In the field of cinematography, television, and video technology, many new technical tools appeared. As a result, many neologisms arose (inflight movies - movies shown on board a plane, featurette - a short documentary film, kidvid - television programs for children).

It is interesting to note that in the early 1980s, members of the feminist movement declared the English language to be sexist, that is, a language that discriminates against the female sex. It was about the fact that the masculine form dominated the English language. Due to the feminist movement, many new lexical units emerged (the Lib Movement - feminist movement, libber libbie - participant or supporter of the feminist movement, instead of fireman - firefighter, policeman - police-officer, stewardess - flight attendant (Andrusiak, 2010).

The English language, like other languages of the world, is actively enriched by the vocabulary inherent in representatives of various professions, social groups, and age categories. For example, the need at least in the name of different professional jargon gave rise to a large number with the -speak component: Artspeak - the jargon of artists; Sportspeak - the jargon of athletes; Medspeak - medical jargon, etc.

Also, many neologisms can be found in the conversations of teenagers: Drugs! - Okay! idly - lazily, loopholes - ways-out, buddy - friend, etc.

Over the past decades, many words related to such a common phenomenon as drug addiction have appeared in English. To designate marijuana, for example, words neutral in their initial semantics are used: grass, pot, hash, herb, smoke, Acapulco gold, stuff. Synonymous series such as head, smack-head, pill-head, freak, grass-hopper appeared for the nomination of drug addicts. The verbs to blow, to hit, to shoot are used to describe actions related to drug use. To describe the results of drug use, the synonyms dirty, spaced, zonked are used, which mean to be under the influence of drugs (Guerra, 2016).

Undoubtedly, the vocabulary of the modern English language is a historical mirror that reflects the social life of all humanity and its scientific and technical progress. The appearance of new words is nothing more than the need to give names to new objects, phenomena, new branches of economy, science, industry, culture, politics, and other spheres of human activity.

Classification of borrowings and their assimilation in the English language

Borrowings are words borrowed from another language that have modified their phonemic form, meaning, and pronunciation to meet English standards. Borrowings belong to the category of so-called strong neologisms, which are distinguished by phonetic distribution, which is not characteristic of the English language, as well as by atypical morphological division and lack of motivation.

Borrowed words existing in the vocabulary of the language can be classified based on the key taxonomy of neologisms:

- by the source of borrowing;

- by the aspect of the borrowed word;

- according to the degree of assimilation.

An analysis of borrowings in the English language shows that traditional sources (French, Spanish, Italian, Russian, German, Greek, Portuguese, and other European languages) gave 52% of borrowings, which is a little more than half. Some borrowings are characterized by their use in one or less often two versions of the English language (British, Canadian, Australian, etc.). For instance, a borrowing from the German language patzer (amateur chess player) is used mainly in American slang, and a borrowing from the French language touriste /turi:st/ (diarrhea caught during a tourist trip) is primarily used in Canadian slang. The phrase numero uno, which means “number one” (the first, the best, the most important) is borrowed from the Spanish language and used in both American and Canadian English. Nowadays, the English language more often "gives" its words to other languages than "receives" them. It is because the English language acquired the status of the Lingua franca (the language of communication) of the 20th century.

Our research proves that the bulk of English borrowings is concentrated in eight thematic subgroups of the largest group, "Socio-political vocabulary" (MWD, 2022):

1. Social relations and phenomena, for example:

yakuza [ja:ku'za:] (Japanese) - a Japanese hooligan or gangster, Chozrim [hoz'rim] - the Jews who returned to Israel after emigration;

2. Politics, for example:

Brigatisti [briga'tisti:] (Italian) - members of the terrorist organization "Red Brigades", (Al)fatah - the largest partisan group of the Palestine Liberation Organization;

3. Culture, for example:

hayashi (Japanese) - Japanese orchestra, salsa (Spanish) - Caribbean dance music reminiscent of mambo, with elements of jazz and rock music;

4. Finance: this thematic group is dominated by the names of currency units of African and Asian countries, for example: Swaziland - Lilangeni; Equatorial Guinea - ekpwele, etc.;

5. Cooking: this includes borrowings from French, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Chinese, etc., for example:

calzone - a big pie with cheese (Italian), burrito - corn pancakes with a filling of beef, cheese, and fried beans (Spanish);

6. Science: most borrowings in this thematic group came from the Latin language, for example: bioplasma, etc.;

7. Sports: this thematic group is dominated by borrowings from the Japanese language, for example: iaido - a Japanese type of fencing;

8. Religion: atsang - Hindu sermon (Sanskrit), zazen - meditation in Zen Buddhism (Japanese);

9. Medicine: shiatsu - a type of massage that relieves pain, fatigue, etc. (Japanese); sulfazin / sulphazin - a medicine for the treatment of mentally ill patients (Latin).

Borrowing can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new to the receiving language. According to this principle, neologisms are divided into:

- phonetic;

- translation-loans;

- semantic;

- the borrowing of word-forming elements (hybrids).

The first type, phonetic borrowings, make up the main and most numerous group. They are characterized by the fact that their general sound complex is new for the receiving language. The specified characteristics are inherent, for example, in today's widely used words such as sport, labor, travel, which are phonetic borrowings.

In globalization, the group of phonetic borrowings in English is enriched by new lexical units. Such is the once very progressive lexical unit perestroika, which was a harbinger of a new democratic era in Eastern Europe, and which is semantically very close to the new neologism lexeme maidan, popular at the beginning of the 21st century. And many of such borrowings from Ukrainian appeared in modern English during the Russo- Ukrainian war: chornobaivka, ukrained, rashism, orks, bavovna, etc.

Translation-loans are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression and its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language, sometimes even preserving the morphological structure.

For example, the German word Leberwurst is a loan translated in liversausage, the French marche aux puces is taken as flea market, and the Spanish luna de miel turned into honeymoon in English.

Semantic borrowings mean borrowing a new meaning, often transferred to a word that already exists in the language. The words pioneer and brigade, for example, have now acquired their original meanings, although a couple of decades ago, they belonged to the group of so-called "sovietisms", as they received the meanings "member of a children communist organization" (pioneer) and "labor team" (brigade) only in the Russian language under the influence of the Soviet ideologies.

It is known that the degree of assimilation can be different and depends on how long ago the borrowing took place, whether it happened orally or through literature, how often the word is used, etc. Examples of fully assimilated observations can be words that were borrowed a long time ago: from Latin - pope, mass, candle, wine; from Scandinavian - ill, low, wing, happy. These words are not perceived by native speakers as foreign, as they correspond to English grammar, phonetics, orthographic systems, and pronunciation.

For example, verbs are included in the system of standard English verbs, receiving a dental suffix in the past tense: associat-ed, exaggerat-ed, accumulat-ed; nouns receive standard endings in the plural: kelims, honchos, nefuseniks, boutiques. In modern English, only some borrowed nouns have retained the plural inflection they had in the language from which they came: schema, lacuna, phenomena, etc.

Adjectives with the suffix -ly, adjectives ending in -less and abstract nouns ending in -ness, -ship, -dom are also freely formed from French stems.

English prefixes un-, fore-, over-, be- can be attached to the stems of borrowed words: unaided, forecast. Words composed of elements of the borrowed words or aspects of partially borrowed words are known as hybrids: beautiful (French root + English suffix), unionist (English prefix + French root).

The degree of phonetic assimilation can also be different. If the English language already had all the sounds that make up borrowed words, then they are reproduced accurately; if there are any sounds left that are not in the English language, each of them is replaced by a close English sound. After complete phonetic assimilation of a word, all sounds change historically.

The interaction between the semantics of a word and its form is related to word variation. The essence of word variation consists only in changing a word's phonetic and grammatical aspects and does not affect its lexical meaning and internal structure. But taking into account the fact that the formal system is interconnected with the inner system of the word, it is important to establish the limits of variation and conditions for the formation of new lexical units. Variants of words are defined as phonetical and morphological variations of a word. They have no semantic differences and completely coincide with the meaning of the words.

Conclusion

Neologisms enrich the vocabulary of the language and thus confirm the dynamics of language development. Neologisms do not clutter the language; they only enrich and contribute to the in-depth study of these lexical units and the reasons for their occurrence. Neologisms now meet the communicative needs of speakers. Not all neologisms are recorded in dictionaries because it takes several years to trace the active and actual use of words and phrases. The appearance of new words indicates the expansion of the speakers' picture of the world and a change in reality, needs, connections, desires, and means of realizing one's own desires.

Among the new vocabulary, some nominations are new both in form and content. The analysis of new nominative units by the creation method showed that the language of recent decades is dominated by morphological neologisms (the units created according to the patterns that already exist in the language system), as well as non-standard language units as a result of blending lexical elements which combine the novelty of the form with the novelty of the content.

The study of the peculiarities of neologism borrowings of the last decades allows us to conclude that the English language not only dominates in the modern world but also replenishes its vocabulary at the expense of many other languages in the context of globalization. But the majority of borrowings traditionally come from the French language. New and borrowed into the English language lexical units can be classified: by the source of borrowing, by the degree of assimilation, and by structural features. Borrowings are divided into: phonetic, translation-loans, semantic, and hybrid, which are assimilated and partially assimilated. The main centers of attraction of neologism-borrowings are social fields: culture, politics, science, technology, everyday life, etc.

Therefore, changes in the active experience of a person lead to the appearance of new and expansion of old fragments of the world picture, which in turn should be fixed on the "language" map of the world.

New spheres, branches, and relationships appear - the language will continue to receive new nominations. It means that new words will continue to appear in the language, eventually going through all the stages of socialization and lexicalization, and being accepted in society. The most common fields of neologisms are those where innovations are directly traced; these are modern new technologies, new and significant events taking place in the life of society. However, many research areas in neology require more detailed analysis, new approaches, clarification of linguistic and extralinguistic causes and influences on word formation processes.

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neologisms borrowings english language

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