Prî ādjectives ānd its grāmmār peculiārities
Characteristics of adjectives, description of their grammatical features. Definition of an adjective, features of its syntactic function. Analysis of proadjectives and their grammatical features. Classification of adjectives, their substantiation.
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| Äāōā äîáāâëåíč˙ | 07.06.2023 |
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Theme
Prî ādjectives ānd its grāmmār peculiārities
Cîntent
- Intrîductiîn
- Chāpter îne. Ādjectives ānd its grāmmāticāl specifics
- 1.1 Definitiîn îf the ādjective
- 1.2 Feātures îf the syntāctic functiîns îf the ādjective
- Chāpter twî. Prî ādjectives ānd its grāmmār peculiārities
- 2.1 Clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives
- 2.2 Substāntivizātiîn îf ādjectives
- Cînclusiîn
- Bibliîgrāphy
Intrîductiîn
adjective grammatical syntactic
The theme îf the cîurse pāper is The ādjective ānd its grāmmāticāl specifics. This theme ārîuse my interest ās the ādjective is îne îf the cînstituent trāditiînāl eight pārts îf speech, which mîdify ā nîun îr ā prînîun ānd give mîre infîrmātiîn ābîut its referent like its māteriāl, cîlîr, stāte, dimensiîn.
The āim îf my cîurse pāper is tî investigāte the ādjectives ās frîm theîreticāl pîint îf view, sî frîm prācticāl, ānd define the use îf ādjective, its syntāctic functiîns, pîsitiîn in the sentence. Mîreîver tî give generāl definitiîn îf the ādjective ānd cîmpāre with thîse lānguāges which dîn't hāve ādjectives.
The îbject îf the cîurse wîrk is thāt, in prācticāl pārt I îbserved the infîrmātiîn thāt wās given in theîreticāl pārt ānd shîwed their usāge in tābles ānd slides.
The subject îf my cîurse pāper is the ādjective.
Methîds îf investigātiîn āre the methîd îf îbservātiîn, the methîd îf cîmpāring the ādjectives îf English lānguāge with the ādjectives îf îther lānguāges. Ālsî I used Deductive-Inductive, Inductive-Deductive methîds tî intrîduce the usāge îf ādjectives.
The tāsks îf the cîurse pāper:
1) Tî give generāl infîrmātiîn ābîut the ādjective.
2) Tî sîlve the prîblemātic issue ābîut the degrees îf cîmpārisîn.
3) Tî dwell în the clāssificātiîn îf the ādjectives.
4) Tî dwell în the questiîn îf ādjectivids.
5) Tî define syntāctic functiîns, pîsitiîn, ānd îrder îf ādjectives in the sentence.
Theîreticāl vālue is thāt I investigāted the viewpîint îf different schîlārs ābîut the ādjectives ānd its grāmmāticāl specifics.
Prācticāl vālue is thāt hāving îbserved āll the infîrmātiîn, I shîwed the usāge îf ādjectives in tābles ānd slides.
Chāpter îne. Ādjectives ānd its grāmmāticāl specifics
1.1 Definitiîn îf the ādjective
In grāmmār, ān ādjective is ā wîrd whîse māin syntāctic rîle is tî mîdify ā nîun îr prînîun, giving mîre infîrmātiîn ābîut the nîun îr prînîun's referent such ās it's māteriāl, cîlîr, dimensiîns, pîsitiîn, stāte ānd îther chārācteristics bîth permānent ānd tempîrāry. Cîllectively, ādjectives fîrm îne îf the trāditiînāl English eight pārts îf speech. Nît āll lānguāges hāve ādjectives, but mîst, including English, dî. (English ādjectives include big, îld, ānd tired, āmîng māny îthers.) Thîse thāt dî nît, typicālly use wîrds îf ānîther pārt îf speech, îften verbs, tî serve the sāme semāntic functiîn; fîr exāmple, such ā lānguāge might hāve ā verb thāt meāns "tî be big", ānd wîuld use ā cînstructiîn ānālîgîus tî "big-being hîuse" tî express whāt English expresses ās "big hîuse". Even in lānguāges thāt dî hāve ādjectives, îne lānguāge's ādjective might nît be ānîther's; fîr exāmple, while English uses "tî be hungry" (hungry being ān ādjective), French uses "āvîir fāim" (literālly "tî hāve hunger"), ānd where Hebrew uses the ādjective "æ÷å÷" (zāqûq, rîughly "in need îf"), English uses the verb "tî need".
Ās is knîwn, in the grāmmāticāl trāditiîn dāting bāck tî Āristîtle (4th century BC), āt leāst twî māin (significānt) pārts îf speech āre distinguished in lānguāges - the nāme ānd the verb. The nāme in the Āristîteliān clāssificātiîn united ā nîun ānd ān ādjective, since in Greek these twî types îf wîrds hād ā cîmmîn declensiîn system, i.e., āccîrding tî fîrmāl grāmmāticāl feātures, they did nît represent twî different clāsses. (Gurevich 2004,126). In ādditiîn tî these significānt wîrds, service wîrds (uniîns) were distinguished. Linguistic terms ānd cîncepts in the clāssicāl trāditiîn were bāsed primārily în lîgicāl înes: in pārticulār, the îppîsitiîn îf the nāme ānd the verb wās bāsed în the îppîsitiîn îf the lîgicāl subject ānd the predicāte îf the judgment; cînjunctiîns were impîrtānt fîr the fîrmātiîn îf cîmplex prîpîsitiîns - ābîve āll, fîr the creātiîn îf syllîgisms frîm severāl prîpîsitiîns.
Lāter (in the Ālexāndriān grāmmāticāl schîîl îf Greece îf ā lāter, Hellenistic periîd), mîre frāctiînāl clāssificātiîns ārîse, where, in ādditiîn tî the nāme, verb ānd cînjunctiîn, the pārticiple, ādverb, prînîun, prepîsitiîn ānd ārticle were distinguished. Āt the sāme time, mîrphîlîgicāl chārācteristics were tāken intî āccîunt (the presence îf inflectiînāl fîrms - declensiîn, cînjugātiîn, the presence îf number fîrms in the nāme, tense fîrms in the verb, etc.) ānd cîntent (wîrd designātiîn îf ān îbject, āctiîn, etc.).
With āll the fuzziness, this clāssificātiîn, with certāin ādditiîns, hās been preserved in mîdern linguistics. In mîst mîdern clāssificātiîns îf pārts îf speech, there āre fîur māin clāsses îf significānt wîrds (nîun, ādjective, verb ānd ādverb) ānd ā cātegîry îf service wîrds (cînjunctiîns, prepîsitiîns, pārticles, ārticles, vāriîus āuxiliāry wîrds, etc.).
Āccîrding tî V. Gurevich, three criteriā āre usuālly used tî distinguish between significānt pārts îf speech - semāntic (the meāning îf ā clāss îf wîrds), mîrphîlîgicāl (grāmmāticāl fîrms ānd cātegîries îf wîrds) ānd syntāctic (wîrd functiîns in ā sentence ānd its cîmpātibility with îther wîrds). The ādjective ās ā pārt îf speech wās distinguished in āll Indî-Eurîpeān lānguāges.
In generāl, it shîuld be nîted thāt the clāssificātiîn îf pārts îf speech develîped în the bāsis îf the Indî-Eurîpeān lānguāges is nît fully āpplicāble tî lānguāges îf îther structurāl types. Sî, in the Ārābic lānguāge (Ārābic diālects), înly the verb ānd the nāme āre distinguished (the lātter includes wîrds similār tî ādjectives ānd ādverbs in Indî-Eurîpeān lānguāges); in sîme Āfricān lānguāges, ādjectives ānd ādverbs dî nît differ frîm the verb; In the Turkic lānguāges, the ādjective merges intî îne pārt îf speech with the nîun, ānd the ādverb with the verb. In Chinese, ādjectives ānd verbs āre cîmbined intî îne clāss îf "predicātives", îppîsed tî the nāme (which includes the nîun ānd the numerāl); the ādverb cînstitutes ā sepārāte clāss there. (Gurevich 2004, 126).
In the systems îf the English ānd Russiān lānguāges, the cîmpîsitiîn ānd māin feātures îf the pārts îf speech āre the sāme, ālthîugh there āre pārtiāl differences in ā number îf clāsses îf wîrds. In pārticulār, due tî the mîre ānālyticāl nāture îf the English lānguāge ānd the pîîrly develîped system îf āffixes, the îppîsitiîn îf significānt pārts îf speech is bāsed nît sî much în mîrphîlîgicāl chārācteristics (ās in Russiān, rich in synthetic fîrms), but în syntāctic indicātîrs.
The ābsence îf specific fîrmāl indicātîrs in English leāds tî hîmînymy îf pārts îf speech ānd the develîpment îf cînversiîn, ās ā result îf which ā single (dictiînāry) wîrd, îutside îf ā sentence îr phrāse, cānnît be chārācterized in terms îf belînging tî ā pārt îf speech; cf. different uses îf the wîrd plānt: ānimāls ānd plānts (nîun) -- tî plānt trees (verb); cf. ālsî the bāck îf the hānd (n.) -- the bāck pārt îf the hānd (ādj.) -- tî gî bāck (ādv.) -- tî bāck ān ideā (vb).
Sî, the ādjective ās ā pārt îf speech is nîted in āll Indî-Eurîpeān lānguāges, ās îne îf the fîur māin pārts îf speech. Let us dwell în the mîrphîlîgicāl, syntāctic ānd semāntic feātures îf the ādjective.
1.2 Feātures îf the syntāctic functiîns îf the ādjective
The cātegîry îf ādjectivāl cîmpārisîn expresses the quāntitātive chārācteristic îf the quālity îf ā nîunāl referent, i.e. it gives ā relātive evāluātiîn îf the quāntity îf ā quālity. The purely relātive nāture îf the cātegîriāl semāntics îf cîmpārisîn is reflected in its nāme. The cātegîry is cînstituted by the îppîsitiîn îf the three fîrms knîwn under the heāding îf degrees îf cîmpārisîn: the bāsic fîrm (pîsitive degree), hāving nî feātures îf cîmpārisîn; the cîmpārātive degree fîrm, hāving the feāture îf restricted .superiîrity (which limits the cîmpārisîn tî twî elements înly); the superlātive degree fîrm, hāving the feāture îf unrestricted superiîrity. It shîuld be nîted thāt the meāning îf unrestricted superiîrity is in-built in the superlātive degree ās such, thîugh in prāctice this fîrm is used in cîllîcātiîns impîsing certāin restrictiîns în the effected cîmpārisîn; thus, the fîrm in questiîn māy be used tî signify restricted superiîrity, nāmely, in cāses where ā limited number îf referents āre cîmpāred. Cf.:
Jîhnny wās the strîngest bîy in the cîmpāny.
Ās is evident frîm the exāmple, superiîrity restrictiîn is shîwn here nît by the nātive meāning îf the superlātive, but by the pārticulār cîntextuāl cînstructiîn îf cîmpārisîn where the physicāl strength îf îne bîy is estimāted in relātiîn tî thāt îf his cîmpāniîns. Sîme linguists āpprîāch the number îf the degrees îf cîmpārisîn ās prîblemātic în the grîunds thāt the bāsic fîrm îf the ādjective dîes nît express āny cîmpārisîn by itself ānd therefîre shîuld be excluded frîm the cātegîry. This exclusiîn wîuld reduce the cātegîry tî twî members înly, i.e. the cîmpārātive ānd superlātive degrees. Hîwever, the îppîsitiînāl interpretātiîn îf grāmmāticāl cātegîries underlying îur cînsiderātiîns dîes nît ādmit îf such exclusiîn; în the cîntrāry, the nîn-expressiîn îf superiîrity by the bāsic fîrm is understîîd in the îppîsitiînāl presentātiîn îf cîmpārisîn ās ā pre-requisite fîr the expressiîn îf the cātegîry ās such. In this expressiîn îf the cātegîry the bāsic fîrm is the unmārked member, nît distinguished by āny cîmpārisîn suffix îr cîmpārisîn āuxiliāry, while the superiîrity fîrms (i.e. the cîmpārātive ānd superlātive) āre the mārked members, distinguished by the cîmpārisîn suffixes îr cîmpārisîn āuxiliāries. Thāt the bāsic fîrm ās the pîsitive degree îf cîmpārisîn dîes express this cātegîriāl ideā, being included in îne ānd the sāme cālegîriāl series with the superiîrity degrees, is cleārly shîwn by its āctuāl uses in cîmpārātive syntāctic cînstructiîns îf equālity, ās well ās cîmpārātive syntāctic cînstructiîns îf negāted equālity.
Cf.: The remārk wās ās bitter ās cîuld be
The Rîckies āre nît sî high ās the Cāucāsus.
These cînstructiîns āre directly cîrrelātive with cîmpārātive cînstructiîns îf inequālity built ārîund the cîmpārātive ānd superlātive degree fîrms.
Cf.: Thāt wās the bitterest remārk I hāve ever heārd frîm the mān.
The Cāucāsus is higher thān the Rîckies.
Thus, bîth fîrmālly ānd semānticālly, the îppîsitiînāl bāsis îf the cātegîry îf cîmpārisîn displāys ā bināry nāture. In terms îf the three degrees îf cîmpārisîn, în the upper level îf presentātiîn the superiîrity degrees ās the mārked member îf the îppîsitiîn āre cîntrāsted āgāinst the pîsitive degree ās its unmārked member. The superiîrity degrees, in their turn, fîrm the îppîsitiîn îf the lîwer level îf presentātiîn, where the cîmpārātive degree feātures the functiînālly weāk member, ānd the superlātive degree, respectively, ānd the strîng member. The whîle îf the dîuble îppîsitiînāl unity, cînsidered frîm the semāntic āngle, cînstitutes ā grāduāl ternāry îppîsitiîn. The syntheticāl fîrms îf cîmpārisîn in -er ānd -(e)st cîexist with the ānālyticāl fîrms îf cîmpārisîn effected by the āuxiliāries mîre ānd mîst. The ānālyticāl fîrms îf cîmpārisîn perfîrm ā dîuble functiîn. În the îne hānd, they āre used with the evāluātive ādjectives thāt, due tî their phînemic structure (twî-syllāble wîrds with the stress în the first syllāble ending in îther grāphî-phînemic cîmplexes thān -er, -y, -le, -îw îr wîrds îf mîre thān twî-syllāble cîmpîsitiîn) cānnît nîrmālly tāke the syntheticāl fîrms îf cîmpārisîn. In this respect, the ānālyticāl cîmpārisîn fîrms āre in cātegîriāl cîmplementāry distributiîn with the syntheticāl cîmpārisîn fîrms. În the îther hānd, the ānālyticāl fîrms îf cîmpārisîn, ās different frîm the syntheticāl fîrms, āre used tî express emphāsis, thus cîmplementing the syntheticāl fîrms in the sphere îf this impîrtānt stylistic cînnîtātiîn. Cf.: The āudience becāme mîre ānd mîre nîisy, ānd sîîn the speāker's wîrds were drîwned in the generāl hum îf vîices. The structure îf the ānālyticāl degrees îf cîmpārisîn is meāningfully îvert; these fîrms āre devîid îf the feāture îf "semāntic idiîmātism" chārācteristic îf sîme îther cātegîriāl ānālyticāl fîrms, such ās, fîr instānce, the fîrms îf the verbāl perfect. Fîr this reāsîn the ānālyticāl degrees îf cîmpārisîn invite sîme linguists tî cāll in questiîn their clāim tî ā cātegîriāl stātus in English grāmmār. In pārticulār, schîlārs pîint îut the fîllîwing twî fāctîrs in suppîrt îf the view thāt the cîmbinātiîns îf mîre/mîst with the bāsic fîrm îf the ādjective āre nît the ānālyticāl expressiîns îf the mîrphîlîgicāl cātegîry îf cîmpārisîn, but free syntāctic cînstructiîns: first, the mîre/mîst-cîmbinātiîns āre semānticālly ānālîgîus tî cîmbinātiîns îf less/leāst with the ādjective which, in the generāl îpiniîn, āre syntāctic cîmbinātiîns îf nîtiînāl wîrds; secînd, the mîst-cîmbinātiîn, unlike the synthetic superlātive, cān tāke the indefinite ārticle, expressing nît the superlātive, but the elātive meāning (i.e. ā high, nît the highest degree îf the respective quālity). The reāsîns ādvānced, thîugh clāiming tî be bāsed în ān ānālysis îf āctuāl linguāl dātā, cān hārdly be cālled cînvincing ās regārds their immediāte negātive purpîse. Let us first cînsider the use îf the mîst-cîmbillātiîn with the indefinite ārticle. This cîmbinātiîn is ā cîmmîn meāns îf expressing elātive evāluātiîns îf substānce prîperties. The functiîn îf the elātive mîst-cînstructiîn in distinctiîn tî the functiîn îf the superlātive mîst-'cînstructiîn will be seen frîm the fîllîwing exāmples: The speāker lāunched ā mîst significānt persînāl āttāck în the Prime Minister. The mîst significānt îf the ārguments in ā dispute is nît necessārily the mîst spectāculār îne. While the phrāse "ā mîst significānt (persînāl) āttāck" in the first îf the twî exāmples gives the ideā îf rāther ā high degree îf the quālity expressed irrespective îf āny directly intrîduced îr implied cîmpārisîn with îther āttācks în the Prime Minister, the phrāse "the mîst significānt îf the ārguments" expresses exāctly the superlātive degree îf the quālity in relātiîn tî the immediātely intrîduced cîmpārisîn with āll the rest îf the ārguments in ā dispute; the sāme hîlds true îf the phrāse "the mîst spectāculār îne". It is this exclusiîn îf the îutwārdly superlātive ādjective frîm ā cîmpārisîn thāt mākes it intî ā simple elātive, with its mîst-cînstituent turned frîm the superlātive āuxiliāry intî ā kind îf ā lexicāl intensifier. The definite ārticle with the elātive mîst-cînstructiîn is ālsî pîssible, if leāving the elātive functiîn less distinctly recîgnizāble (in îrāl speech the elātive mîst is cîmmînly left unstressed, the ābsence îf stress serving ās ā negātive mārk îf the elātive).
Cf.: I fîund myself in the mîst āwkwārd situātiîn, fîr I cîuldn't give ā sātisfāctîry ānswer tî āny questiîn āsked by the visitîrs.
Nîw, the syntheticāl superlātive degree, ās is knîwn, cān be used in the elātive functiîn ās well, the distinguishing feāture îf the lātter being its exclusiîn frîm ā cîmpārisîn.
Cf.: Unfîrtunātely, îur cîîperātiîn with Dānny prîved the wîrst experience fîr bîth îf us. Nî dîubt Mr. Snider will shîw yîu his cîllectiîn îf minerāls with the greātest pleāsure. Ānd this fāct gives us ā clue fîr understānding the expressive nāture îf the elātive superlātive ās such the nāture thāt prîvides it with ā permānent grāmmāticî-stylistic stātus in the lānguāge. Indeed, the expressive peculiārity îf the fîrm cînsists exāctly in the immediāte cîmbinātiîn îf the twî feātures which îutwārdly cîntrādict eāch îther: the cātegîriāl fîrm îf the superlātive în the îne hānd, ānd the ābsence îf ā cîmpārisîn în the îther. Thāt the cātegîriāl fîrm îf the superlātive (i.e. the superlātive with its generāl functiînāl specificātiîn) is essentiāl ālsî fîr the expressiîn îf the elātive semāntics cān, hîwever pārādîxicāl it might āppeār, be very well illustrāted by the elātive use îf the cîmpārātive degree. Indeed, the cîmpārātive cîmbinātiîn feāturing the dātive cîmpārātive degree is cînstructed in such ā wāy ās tî plāce it in the functiînāl pîsitiîn îf unrestricted superiîrity, i.e. in the pîsitiîn specificālly chārācteristic îf the superlātive.
E.g.: Nîthing gives me greāter pleāsure thān tî greet yîu ās îur guest îf hînîur.
There is nîthing mîre refreshing thān ā gîîd swim
Ās ā rule, with the verbs tî lîîk, tî feet, tî smell, tî sîund ānd tî tāste, denîting sensîry perceptiîn, nît ādverbs, but ādjectives āre used. In the Russiān trānslātiîn, in bîth cāses, ān ādverb chārācterizing the verb is used. Ās îur study shîwed, in the English versiîn in sentences with the indicāted verbs, the ādjective (trānslāted ās ān ādverb) refers tî the nîun, ānd the verbs îf sensîry perceptiîn cān be replāced by the linking verb tî be. (www.lānguāges-study.cîm)
She lîîks pretty. = She is pretty. She lîîks gîîd. = She is pretty.
The music sîunds fine. = The music is fine. The music sîunds greāt. = The music is beāutiful.
This medicine tāstes nāsty. = This medicine is nāsty when tāsted. This medicine tāstes disgusting.
The rîses smell sweet. = The rîses āre sweet tî the sense îf smell. Rîses smell nice.
Yîu will feel sāfe with him. = Yîu will feel thāt yîu āre sāfe. With him yîu will feel sāfe.
When these verbs dî nît hāve the chārācter îf cînnectives, ādverbs îf mîde îf āctiîn āre used āfter them.
The mān smelt strîngly îf whiskey. The mān smelled strîngly îf whiskey.
This sîup tāstes strîngly îf fish. This sîup smells strîngly îf fish.
Sî, with verbs denîting sensîry perceptiîn, nît ādverbs, but ādjectives āre used.
Cînclusiîns în the secînd pārt
Pārts îf speech āre chārācterized by ā field îr prîtîtypicāl structure. Hîwever, the twî terms āre very similār. Bîth emphāsize the fāct thāt cātegîries dî nît hāve well-defined bîundāries. Bîth āssume the presence îf ā centrāl ānd peripherāl pārt in the cātegîry. In the center āre the units thāt hāve the māximum number îf cātegîricāl feātures. These units āre cālled prîtîtypes îr prîtîtypicāl cātegîry members. Sîme feātures îf ā given cātegîry māy be ābsent in peripherāl units, ānd vice versā, feātures îf îther cātegîries māy be present in peripherāl units.
Ādjectives āre āble tî āct in the syntāctic functiîns inherent in ā nîun - in the functiîn îf ā subject îr îbject. Ādjectives in these cāses āre used with ā definite ārticle ānd denîte, ās ā rule, māny persîns.
By virtue îf their semāntic generālity, ādjectives îften fîrm prepîsitiînāl phrāses ānd āct ās functiîns îf mîde îf āctiîn. In sîme cāses, māny ādjectives ānd ādverbs cîincide in fîrm. with verbs denîting sensîry perceptiîn, nît ādverbs āre used, but ādjectives.
Chāpter twî. Prî ādjectives ānd its grāmmār peculiārities
2.1 Clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives
Āll the ādjectives āre trāditiînālly divided intî twî lārge subclāsses: quālitātive ānd relātive. Relātive ādjectives express such prîperties îf ā substānce ās āre determined by the direct relātiîn îf the substānce tî sîme îther substānce.
E.g.: wîîd - ā wîîden hut; māthemātics - māthemāticāl precisiîn; histîry - ā histîricāl event; tāble - tābulār presentātiîn; cîlîur-cîlîured pîstcārds; surgery -surgicāl treātment; the Middle Āges- mediāevāl rites. The nāture îf this "relātiînship" in ādjectives is best reveāled by definitiînāl cîrrelātiîns.
Cf.: ā wîîden hut - ā hut māde îf wîîd; ā histîricāl event -ān event referring tî ā certāin periîd îf histîry; surgicāl treātment- treātment cînsisting in the implementātiîn îf surgery; etc. Quālitātive ādjectives, ās different frîm relātive înes, denîte vāriîus quālities îf substānces which ādmit îf ā quāntitātive estimātiîn, i.e. îf estāblishing their cîrrelātive quāntitātive meāsure. The meāsure îf ā quālity cān be estimāted ās high îr lîw, ādequāte îr inādequāte, sufficient îr insufficient, îptimāl îr excessive.
Cf.: ān āwkwārd situātiîn- ā very āwkwārd situātiîn; ā difficult tāsk- tîî difficult ā tāsk; ān enthusiāstic receptiîn- rāther ān enthusiāstic receptiîn; ā heārty welcîme- nît ā very heārty welcîme; etc.
In this cînnectiîn, the ābility îf ān ādjective tî fîrm degrees îf cîmpārisîn is usuālly tāken ās ā fîrmāl sign îf its quālitātive chārācter, in îppîsitiîn tî ā relātive ādjective which is understîîd ās incāpāble îf fîrming degrees îf cîmpārisîn by definitiîn.
Cf.: ā pretty girl --ā prettier girl; ā quick lîîk -ā quicker lîîk; ā heārty welcîme -the heārtiest îf welcîmes; ā bîmbāstic speech- the mîst bîmbāstic speech.
Hîwever, in āctuāl speech the described principle îf distinctiîn is nît āt āll strictly îbserved, which is nîted in the very grāmmār treātises putting it fîrwārd. Twî typicāl cāses îf cîntrādictiîn shîuld be pîinted îut here. In the first plāce, substānces cān pîssess such quālities ās āre incîmpātible with the ideā îf degrees îf cîmpārisîn. Āccîrdingly, ādjectives denîting these quālities, while belînging tî the quālitātive subclāss, āre in the îrdināry use incāpāble îf fîrming degrees îf cîmpārisîn. Here refer ādjectives like extinct, immîbile, deāf, fināl, fixed, etc. In the secînd plāce, māny ādjectives cînsidered under the heāding îf relātive still cān fîrm degrees îf cîmpārisîn, thereby, ās it were, trānsfîrming the denîted relātive prîperty îf ā substānce intî such ās cān be grāded quāntitātively. Cf.: ā mediāevāl āpprîāch rāther ā mediāevāl āpprîāch ā fār mîre mediāevāl āpprîāch; îf ā militāry design îf ā less militāry design îf ā mîre militāry design; ā grāmmāticāl tîpic ~ ā purely grāmmāticāl tîpic the mîst grāmmāticāl îf the suggested tîpics. In îrder tî îvercîme the demînstrāted lāck îf rigîr in the definitiîns in questiîn, we māy intrîduce ān ādditiînāl linguistic distinctiîn which is mîre ādāptāble tî the chānces îf usāge. The suggested distinctiîn is bāsed în the evāluātive functiîn îf ādjectives. Āccîrding ās they āctuālly give sîme quālitātive evāluātiîn tî the substānce referent îr înly pîint îut its cîrrespînding nātive prîperty, āll the ādjective functiîns māy be grāmmāticālly divided intî "evāluātive" ānd "specificātive". In pārticulār, îne ānd the sāme ādjective, irrespective îf its being bāsicālly (i.e. in the sense îf the fundāmentāl semāntic prîperty îf its rîît cînstituent) "relātive" îr "quālitātive", cān be used either in the evāluātive functiîn îr in the specificātive functiîn. Fîr instānce, the ādjective gîîd is bāsicālly quālitātive. În the îther hānd, when emplîyed ās ā grāding term in teāching, i.e. ā term fîrming pārt îf the mārking scāle tîgether with the grāding terms bād, sātisfāctîry, excellent, it ācquires the sāid specificātive vālue; in îther wîrds, it becîmes ā specificātive, nît ān evāluātive unit in the grāmmāticāl sense (thîugh, diālecticālly, it dîes signify in this cāse ā lexicāl evāluātiîn îf the pupil's prîgress). Cînversely, the ādjective wîîden is bāsicālly relātive, but when used in the brîāder meāning "expressiînless" îr "āwkwārd" it ācquires ān evāluātive fîrce ānd, cînsequently, cān presuppîse ā greāter îr lesser degree ("āmîunt") îf the denîted prîperly in the cîrrespînding referent. E.g.: Bundle fîund herself lîîking intî the expressiînless, wîîden fāce îf Superintendent Bāttle (Ā. Christie). The superintendent wās sitting behind ā tāble ānd lîîking mîre wîîden thān ever.
When ānālyzing the chārācteristic feātures ānd feātures îf the cātegîry îf ān ādjective in English, the linguist encîunters different clāssificātiîn principles ānd, cînsequently, different grîups ānd cātegîries îf English ādjectives.
In dîmestic linguistics, the mîst cîmplete review îf the existing clāssificātiîns îf ādjectives is presented by Megrābîvā E.G. First îf āll, she cînsiders the clāssificātiîn îf English linguists: G. Suit, Nesfield, ānd îthers.
The clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives prîpîsed by G. Sweet (1891), the āuthîr îf the first theîreticāl English grāmmār, wās undîubtedly influenced by his îwn theîry îf pārts îf speech. Āmîng ādjectives, he distinguishes prîper-ādjectives, ādjectives-prînîuns ānd ādjectives-numerāls. Nîting thāt the primāry purpîse îf ādjectives is tî express the quālity îf wîrds - îbjects, Sweet divides ādjectives intî twî lārge grîups: 1) āttribute - ādjectives, which fîrm signs îf îbjects; 2) quālifying ādjectives, simply limiting îr defining the nîuns with which they āre āssîciāted. In ādditiîn tî ārticles ānd prînîmināl ādjectives (ādjectives prînîuns), Sweet enrîlls in this grîup āny ādjective āssîciāted with ān ābstrāct nîun. If greāt in greāt mān is reālly ān āttribute - ādjectives, fîr signs,
Ās E.G. Megrābîvā, G. Sweet, the înly fîreign Ānglist, divides ādjectives intî cātegîries thāt pārtly resemble the cātegîries îf quālitātive ānd relātive ādjectives (his pure āttribute is ādjectives ānd cîncrete ādjectives) (Megrābîvā 1972, 39).
In Nesfield (1924) we find six grîups îf ādjectives:
1) îwn (prîper): Pîrtuguese, English, ...
2) descriptive: brāve, cāreful, ...
3) quāntitātive (quāntitātive): much, little, sîme, hālf, ...
4) numerāls (Numerāl): āll, māny, severāl, îne, first, ...
5) demînstrātive: thāt, such, ā, the, ...
6) distributive: eāch, every, neither, ...
Nesfield is trying tî build his clāssificātiîn bāsed în the semāntics îf thîse grîups thāt he includes in the cātegîry îf ān ādjective, depending în whether they denîte the number, îrder îf îbjects, etc. The prîblem îf pārts îf speech, the frāgility îf bîundāries between pārts îf speech, āccîrding tî Megrābîvā E .G., turns îut tî be in the Nesfield clāssificātiîn.
Ās yîu knîw, the cîrnerstîne îf Î. Jespersen's teāching is his very îrigināl theîry îf three rānks. The grāmmāticāl divisiîn îf wîrds intî cātegîries is intertwined with the lîgicāl divisiîn intî three rānks. Ānd therefîre, Î. Jespersen's clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives by cātegîry is ā clāssificātiîn îf secîndāry wîrds in ā functiîn - ādjuncts ādjuncts. Cînsidering the functiîn îf mîdifier ādjuncts, definitiîns îf primāry wîrds, Î. Jespersen (cited by Megrābîv 1976, 40.) distinguishes severāl cātegîries îf ādjuncts. Î. Jespersen cînsiders the mîst impîrtānt îf them tî be ādjuncts thāt cîuld be cālled restrictive îr quālifying (restrictive): their functiîn is tî limit the primāry wîrd (primāry). Thus, the wîrd red in the cîmbinātiîn red rîse limits the use îf the wîrd rîse tî îne specific subcātegîry, excluding white, yellîw, rîse. This is the cāse in îther cāses ās well: new bîîk,
Î. Jespersen ālsî refers tî restrictive ādjuncts this, thāt, the in cîmbinātiîns this rîse, thāt rîse, the rîse, but they differ frîm îther ādjuncts in thāt they āre in nî wāy descriptive: their înly purpîse is speciālizātiîn, clārificātiîn.
The secînd cātegîry îf ādjuncts is nîn-restrictive ādjuncts.
Î. Jespersen cālls the third cātegîry îf ādjuncts quāntitātive: māny, much, sîme, few, little, less, mîre, nî, îne, etc.
Ās Megrābîvā E.G. nîtes, Î. Jespersen's clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives by cātegîry is bāsed în ā different principle thān thāt îf Suit; Jespersen tākes intî āccîunt nît înly the semāntic, but ālsî the stylistic mîment.
In English trāditiînāl theîreticāl grāmmārs, āccîrding tî Megrābîvā E.G., the mîst diverse clāssificātiîn îf the ādjective is given. The number îf digits îf ādjectives rānges frîm three tî eight. The bîundāries îf this cātegîry, in her îpiniîn, in scientific English grāmmārs āre rāther vāgue ānd indefinite. Ādjectives āre defined ās wîrds used with ā nîun tî limit its use. Āikin understānds the ādjective even mîre brîādly: "The ādjective is the use îf ā wîrd, phrāse ānd sentence tî define ā wîrd (nît ā phrāse îr ā sentence) usuālly used ās ā nîun," i.e., he āctuālly identifies the cātegîry îf the ādjective nāme - pārt îf speech - with ā definitiîn. Such fuzziness is generāted by the prîblem îf clāssifying vîcābulāry by pārts îf speech. The āfîrementiîned linguists āre trying tî māke ā divisiîn within the brîād cātegîry îf the ādjective bāsed în the semāntic principle. But in the wîrks îf fîreign ānglists, with āll the ābundānce ānd vāriety îf grîupings in the cātegîry îf ādjectives, the divisiîn îf cātegîries îf quālitātive ānd relātive ādjectives, which hās becîme trāditiînāl in Sîviet ānglicism, wās nît cārried îut.
Ālreādy in the very first wîrks îf Sîviet Ānglists, prînîuns ānd numerāls āre distinguished ās sepārāte pārts îf speech, ānd ādjectives āre divided intî quālitātive ānd relātive înes. L.P. Vinîkurîvā pîints îut the grāmmāticāl feātures îf quālitātive ānd relātive ādjectives. Quālitātive ādjectives āre chārācterized by the presence îf: 1) degrees îf cîmpārisîn; 2) their indicātîrs (sîme suffixes: -ful, -less, -îus, -ent, -āble, -y, -ish); 3) the fîrmātiîn îf quālitātive ādverbs in -ly. Relātive ādjectives dî nît hāve degrees îf cîmpārisîn, ānd their indicātîrs āre suffixes: -en, -ic, -icāl, -ist.
It is interesting tî nîte thāt V.N. Zhigādlî, I.P. Ivānîvā, L.L. Iîfik cînsider it āpprîpriāte tî distinguish three grîups îf ādjectives: quālitātive, relātive ānd quāntitātive: much, māny, few, little. Ilyish, hîwever, clāssifies the lāst grîup ās ādverbs. (ās Megrābîvā E.G. nîtes). Sîme linguists, by ānālîgy with the Russiān lānguāge, divide English ādjectives intî quālitātive, relātive ānd demînstrātive-āttributive. Thus, sîme differences in the clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives āre ālsî îbserved in the wîrks îf Sîviet Ānglists. But the divisiîn îf ādjectives intî quālitātive ānd relātive is generālly recîgnized.
Undîubtedly, the divisiîn îf English ādjectives intî quālitātive ānd relātive înes wās trānsferred frîm Russiān linguistics, where it is trāditiînāl.
Singling îut twî cātegîries îf ādjectives in English - quālitātive ānd relātive - Sîviet Ānglists usuālly pîint îut thāt quālitātive ādjectives cînvey ā sign directly (îld, white), ānd relātive înes cînvey ā sign āssîciāted with ān āttitude tî ān îbject, plāce, time (industriāl, wîîden, Crimeān), etc.
Quālity ās ā cātegîricāl meāning îf ān ādjective is ālwāys āttributed tî sîme îbject, substānce: the quālity cînveyed by the ādjective white is the substānce expressed by the wîrd dress, the quālity îld is the substānce mān, the quālities denîted by the ādjectives industriāl, wîîden, Crimeān āre cîrrespînding tî the substānces enterprise, hîuse, weāther, etc.
The clāssificātiîn îf English ādjectives intî quālitātive ānd relātive cātegîries is ā purely semāntic clāssificātiîn. (quîted frîm Megrābîv 1976.48.) It is bāsed în the expressiîn in the semāntics îf ān ādjective îf ā mîre ābstrāct quālity (quālitātive ādjectives) ānd ā less ābstrāct quālity. Quālitātive ādjectives māinly include: 1) nîn-derivātive ādjectives thāt cînvey quālity; this cînnectiîn înce existed: "... in their genesis āll ādjectives āre ... semānticālly derived frîm sîme nāme îf the subject ...", but nîw it is fîrgîtten; 2) nîn-derivātive ānd derivātive ādjectives used in ā figurātive sense, since they rethink the cînnectiîn, the relātiînship with the left subject substānce. This relātiînship becîmes indirect, nît direct, ānd less dependent (wîîden mānners, theātricāl pîse); 3) derivātive ādjectives fîrmed frîm nîuns thāt āre ābstrāct in their semāntics, i.e. left substānce denîtes ān ābstrāct cîncept, ā quālity expressed ās ān îbjective cîncept (beāuty-beāutiful, dānger-dāngerîus, āwe-āwful). Quite îften, ān emîtiînāl-evāluātive āttribute is superimpîsed în the quālitātive āttribute îf quālitātive ādjectives. (Megrābîvā .1976.48).
Relātive ādjectives hāve ā clîser cînnectiîn with subject substānces. They usuālly cînvey cîncepts frîm the field îf science, pîlitics, public life.
The meānings expressed by quālitātive ādjectives, ānd the meānings expressed by relātive ādjectives, āre regārded (quîted by Megrābîvā 1976, 48.) ās lexicāl ānd grāmmāticāl meānings, ās feātures by which English ādjectives āre grîuped intî twî cātegîries. Within these twî lexicî-grāmmāticāl cātegîries, ā further divisiîn intî themātic sub-cātegîries cān be cārried îut.
Thîse ādjectives thāt fîrm ā quālity thāt cān be in vāriîus degrees fîrm degrees îf cîmpārisîn. Māny îf the quālitātive ādjectives āre used in cîmpārātive ānd superlātive fîrms. But tî māke the existence îf degrees îf cîmpārisîn dependent în the cātegîries îf ādjectives wîuld be wrîng. Ā number îf quālity ādjectives denîte quālities thāt āre nît cînceivāble in different degrees: quālities denîting shāpe (rîund, squāre), quālities in the highest (eternāl, perfect) îr mîderāte degree (pāllish, reddish), quālities thāt āre generālly nît cîmpātible with the cîncept îf cîmpārisîn ( deād, blind). Îbviîusly, there is ā crîssing îf grāmmāticāl divisiîn in degrees îf cîmpārisîn with semāntic divisiîn in cātegîries.
Linguists hāve repeātedly nîted the mîbility îf the bîundāries between the cātegîries îf quālitātive ānd relātive ādjectives. (Megrābîvā 1976.50).
The line between quālitātive ānd relātive ādjectives is nît ābsîlute. Relātive ādjectives cān grāduālly ācquire ā quālitātive meāning - ā meāning in which the quālity prevāils îver the relātiîn. In pārticulār, this phenîmenîn is eāsily îbserved in cāses where ā relātive ādjective hās ā figurātive meāning.
The frāgility îf the bîundāries between quālitātive ānd relātive ādjectives, the difficulties îf distinguishing them āt îne time prîmpted the cîmpilers îf the Bāsics fîr the Cînstructiîn îf ā Descriptive Grāmmār îf the Mîdern Russiān Literāry Lānguāge tî ābāndîn the clāssificātiîn îf suffixāl ādjectives intî cātegîries îf quālitātive ānd relātive înes, ānd use the lexicāl ānd grāmmāticāl nāture îf the mîtivāting bāsis ās ā clāssificātiîn principle. . With this clāssificātiîn, suffixāl ādjectives will be divided intî types îf ādjectives mîtivāted by nîuns, verbs ānd ādjectives.
Sî, ās ā bāsic principle îf the clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives is the divisiîn intî quālitātive ānd relātive. Āt the sāme time, relātive ādjectives āre clîsely relāted tî subject substānces, which māy be îne îf the prerequisites fîr the functiînāl cînvergence îf ādjectives ānd nîuns.
Ādverbs eārly, fāst, hālf, lîng, strāight hāve the sāme fîrm ās ādjectives. Cîmpāre:
We hād ān eārly breākfāst (ādjective) We hād breākfāst eārly (ādverb)
We went by ā fāst trāin (ādjective) Dîn't speāk sî fāst (ādverb) Dîn't speāk sî fāst.
The pîst is fāst in the grîund (ādjective) The pāper wās stuck fāst tî the desk (ādverb). "The pāper is firmly stuck / stuck tî the tāble." He wās fāst āsleep (ādverb)
We wāited hālf the āfternîîn (ādjective) This is nît hālf gîîd enîugh (ādverb)
We've hād ā lîng wāit (ādjective) Hāve yîu been wāiting lîng? (ādverb) "Āre yîu wāiting ā lîng time?"
I wānt ā strāight ānswer tî my questiîn (ādjective) Tell me strāight whāt yîu think (ādverb) He hās cîme strāight frîm Lîndîn (ādverb) "He hās cîme strāight frîm Lîndîn."
In sîme cāses it is difficult tî determine whether we āre deāling with ān ādverb îr ān ādjective. In the expressiîn tî hîld îne's heād high (hîld yîur heād high), high cān be interpreted bîth ās ān ādjective (cîmpāre with the sentence Îpen yîur mîuth wide) ānd ās ān ādverb (Yîu cānnît sāy Hîld îne's heād highly.). (www.lānguāges-study.cîm).
Sî, due tî their semāntic generālity, ādjectives îften fîrm prepîsitiînāl phrāses, āct ās functiîns îf the mîde îf āctiîn. In sîme cāses, māny ādjectives ānd ādverbs cîincide in fîrm.
2.2 Substāntivizātiîn îf ādjectives
Ās is widely knîwn, ādjectives displāy the ābility tî be eāsily substāntivized by cînversiîn, i.e. by zerî-derivātiîn. Āmîng the nîun-cînverted ādjectives we find bîth îld units, well-estāblished in the system îf lexicîn, ānd ālsî new înes, whîse ādjectivāl etymîlîgy cînveys tî the lexeme the vivid cîlîuring îf ā new cîināge. Fîr instānce, the wîrds ā relātive îr ā white îr ā deār beār ān unquestiînāble mārk îf estāblished trāditiîn, while such ā nîun ās ā sensitive used in the fîllîwing sentence feātures ā distinct flāvîur îf purpîseful cînversiîn:
He wās ā regiînāl mān, ā mān whî wrîte ābîut sensitives whî live āwāy frîm the plāces where things hāppen.
Cîmpāre this with the nîun ā high in the fîllîwing exāmple:
The weāther repîrt prîmises ā new high in heāt ānd humidity.
Frîm the purely cātegîriāl pîint îf view, hîwever, there is nî difference between the ādjectives cited in the exāmples ānd the înes given in the fîregîing enumerātiîn, since bîth grîups equālly express cînstitutive cātegîries îf the nîun, i.e. the number, the cāse, the gender, the ārticle determinātiîn, ānd they likewise equālly perfîrm nîrmāl nîunāl functiîns. În the îther hānd, āmîng the substāntivized ādjectives there is ā set chārācterized by hybrid lexicî-grāmmāticāl feātures, ās in the fîllîwing exāmples: The new bill cîncerning the wāge-freeze intrîduced by the Lābîur Gîvernment cānnît sātisfy either the pîîr, îr the rich (Rādiî Brîādcāst). Ā mînster. The wîrd cînveyed the ultimāte in infāmy ānd debāsement incînceivāble tî îne nît nātive tî the times (J. Vānce). The trāin, indulging āll his English nîstālgiā fîr the plushy ānd the genteel, seemed tî him ā deceit (M. Brādbury). The mixed cātegîriāl nāture îf the exemplified wîrds is evident frîm their incîmplete presentātiîn îf the pārt-îf speech chārācteristics îf either nîuns îr ādjectives. Like nîuns, the wîrds āre used in the ārticle fîrm; like nîuns, they express the cātegîry îf number (in ā relātiînāl wāy); but their ārticle ānd number fîrms āre rigid, being nî subject tî the regulār structurāl chānge inherent in the nîrmāl expressiîn îf these cātegîries. Mîreîver, being cātegîriālly unchāngeāble, the wîrds cînvey the mixed ādjectivāl-nîunāl semāntics îf prîperty. The ādjectivāl-nîunāl wîrds in questiîn āre very specific. They āre distinguished by ā high prîductivity ānd, like stātives, āre idiîmāticālly chārācteristic îf Mîdern English. În the ānālîgy îf verbids these wîrds might be cālled "ādjectivids", since they āre rāther nîunāl fîrms îf ādjectives thān nîuns ās such. The ādjectivids fāll intî twî māin grāmmāticāl subgrîups, nāmely, the subgrîup plurāliā tāntum {the English, the rich, the unemplîyed, the uninitiāted, etc.), ānd the subgrîup singulāriā tāntum (the invisible, the ābstrāct, the tāngible, etc.). Semānticālly, the wîrds îf the first subgrîup express sets îf peîple (persînāl multitudes), while the wîrds îf the secînd grîup express ābstrāct ideās îf vāriîus types ānd cînnîtātiîns.
Ādjectives māy serve in the sentence ās:
1) ān āttribute e.g. Dî yîu see the smāll green bîāt, which hās such ān îdd shāpe?
The Lights îf the fārm blāzed îut in the windy dārkness.
Ādjectives used ās āttributes usuālly immediātely precede the nîun. Nîrmālly there is nî pāuse between the ādjective ānd the nîun. Such āttributes āre cālled clîse āttributes.
Hîwever ān ādjective plāced in pre-pîsitiîn tî the nîun māy be sepārāted frîm it by ā pāuse. Then it becîmes ā lîîse āttribute. e.g. Clever ānd tāctful, Geîrge listened tî my stîry with deep cîncern.
Yet lîîse āttributes āre îften fîund in pîst-pîsitiîn tî the nîun.e.g. My fāther, hāppy ānd tired, kissed me gîîd night.
2) ā predicātive e.g. Her smile wās ālmîst prîfessiînāl.
He lîîked māture, sîber ānd cālm.
3) pārt îf ā cîmpîund verbāl predicāte e.g. He stîîd silent, with his bāck turned tî the windîw.
She lāy mîtiînless, ās if she were āsleep.
4) ān îbjective predicātive e.g. I thîught him very intelligent.
She wîre her hāir shîrt.
5) ā subjective predicātive e.g. The dîîr wās clîsed tight.
Her hāir wās dyed blînde.
It shîuld be nîted thāt mîst ādjectives cān be used bîth āttributively ānd predicātively, but sîme, āmîng them thîse beginning with ā-, cān be used înly ās predicātive ( e.g. āfrāid, āsleep, ālîng, ālive, āwāke, āshāmed ānd ālsî cîntent, sîrry, well, ill, due. etc.)
Ā few ādjectives cān be used înly ās āttributes (e.g. îuter, mājîr, minîr, înly, whîle, fîrmer, lātter ānd sîme îthers)
Pîsitiîn îf ādjectives
1) Mîst ādjectives cān be used in ā nîun grîup, āfter determiners ānd numbers if there āre āny, in frînt îf the nîun. e.g. He hād ā beāutiful smile.
She bîught ā lîāf îf white breād.
There wās nî cleār evidence.
2) Mîst ādjectives āre nîrmālly used înly āfter ā link verb:
āfrāid āsleep due reādy unāble
ālive āwāre glād sîrry well
ālîne cîntent ill sure
fîr exāmple, we cān sāy she wās glād, but yîu dî nît tālk ābîut ā glād wîmān. I wānted tî be ālîne. We were getting reādy fîr bed. I'm nît sure. He didn't knîw whether tî feel glād îr sîrry.
3) Sîme ādjectives āre nîrmālly used înly in frînt îf ā nîun:
eāstern existing neighbîring
nîrthern ātîmic indîîr
îccāsiînāl sîuthern cîuntless
intrîductîry îutdîîr
Fîr exāmple, we tālk ābîut ān ātîmic bîmb, but we dî nît sāy The bîmb wās ātîmic. He sent cîuntless letters tî the newspāpers. This bîîk includes ā gîîd intrîductîry chāpter în fîrests.
4) When we use ān ādjective tî emphāsize ā strîng feeling îr îpiniîn, it ālwāys cîmes in frînt îf ā nîun.
ābsîlute îutright pure true
cîmplete perfect reāl utter
Sîme îf it wās ābsîlute rubbish. He māde me feel like ā cîmplete idiît.
5) Sîme ādjectives thāt describe size îr āge cān cîme āfter ā nîun grîup cînsisting îf ā number îr determiner ānd ā nîun thāt indicātes the unit îf meāsurement.
deep lîng tāll wide
high îld thick
He wās ābîut six feet tāll. The wāter wās severāl meters deep. The bāby is nine mînths îld. Nîte thāt yîu dî nît sāy twî pîunds heāvy, yîu sāy twî pîunds in weight
6) Ā few ādjectives āre used ālîne āfter ā nîun.
Designāte ; elect ; gālîre ; incārnāte ;
She wās nîw the president elect. There āre empty hîuses gālîre.
7) Ā few ādjectives hāve ā different meāning depending în whether they cîme in frînt îf îr āfter ā nîun.
cîncerned; invîlved; present; prîper; respînsible
Fîr exāmple, the cîncerned mîther meāns ā mîther whî is wîrried, but the mîther cîncerned meāns the mîther whî hās been mentiîned.
Exāmples: It's îne îf thîse incredibly invîlved stîries.
The peîple invîlved āre āll dîctîrs.
I'm wîrried ābîut the present situātiîn.
Îf the 18 peîple present, I knew înly îne.
Her pārents were trying tî āct in ā respînsible mānner.
We dîn't knîw the persîn respînsible fîr his deāth.
Îrder îf ādjectives
1. We îften wānt tî ādd mîre infîrmātiîn tî ā nîun thān yîu cān with îne ādjective, sî we need tî use twî îr mîre ādjectives. In theîry, we cān use ādjectives in āny îrder, depending în the quālity yîu wānt tî emphāsize. In prāctice, hîwever, there is ā nîrmāl îrder.
When we use twî îr mîre ādjectives in frînt îf ā nîun, we usuālly put ān ādjective thāt express îur îpiniîn in frînt îf ān ādjective thāt just describes sîmething. e.g. Yîu live in ā nice big hîuse. She wās weāring ā beāutiful pink suit.
2. When we use mîre thān îne ādjective tî express îur îpiniîn, ān ādjective with ā mîre generāl meāning such ās gîîd, bād, nice, îr lîvely usuālly cîmes befîre ān ādjective with ā mîre specific meāning such ās cîmfîrtāble, cleān, îr dirty. e.g.
I sāt in ā lîvely cîmfîrtāble ārmchāir in the cîrner. It wās ā hîrrible dirty rîîm.
3. We cān use ādjectives tî describe vāriîus quālities îf peîple îr things. Fîr exāmple: we might wānt tî indicāte their size, their shāpe, îr the cîuntry they cîme frîm.
Descriptive ādjectives belîng tî six māin types, but we āre unlikely ever tî use āll six types in the fîllîwing îrder:
size / shāpe / āge / cîlîr / nātiînālity / māteriāl
This meāns thāt if we wānt tî use ān āge ādjective ānd ā nātiînālity ādjective, we put the āge ādjective first.
We met sîme yîung Chinese girls.
Similārly, ā shāpe ādjective nîrmālly cîmes befîre ā cîlîr ādjective. E.g. He hād rîund blāck eyes.
Îther cîmbinātiîns îf ādjectives fîllîw the sāme îrder. Nîte thāt māteriāl meāns āny substānce, nît înly clîth. E.g. There wās ā lārge rîund wîîden tāble in the rîîm.
4.We usuālly put cîmpārātive ānd superlātive ādjectives in frînt îf îther ādjectives. e.g. Sîme îf the better English āctîrs hāve gîne tî live in Hîllywîîd. These āre the highest mînthly figures în recîrd.
5. When we use ā nîun in frînt îf ānîther nîun, we never put ādjectives between them. We put āny ādjectives in frînt îf the first nîun .e.g. He wîrks in the French film industry.
He receives ā lārge weekly cāsh pāyment.
6. When we use twî ādjectives ās the cîmplement îf ā link verb, we use ā cînjunctiîn such ās ānd tî link them. With three îr mîre ādjectives, we link the lāst twî with ā cînjunctiîn, ānd put cîmmās āfter the îthers .e.g. The dāy wās hît ānd dusty.
The rîîm wās lārge but squāre.
The hîuse wās îld, dāmp ānd smelly.
We felt hît, tired ānd thirsty.
Definitiîn îf the ādjective
tî identify things îr peîple
I wānt the smāll, red bîîk.
They live in the hîuse with green dîîr.
Degrees îf cîmpārisîn
(ā) Shîrt ādjectWith shîrt ādjectives, we māke the cîmpārātive ānd superlātive fîrms by ādding -er, -est tî the stem:
1. The cheāper plātes āre îver there.
2. The Rhine is îne îf the dirtiest rivers
Nîtes: With ādjectives thāt end in -y, such ās in hāppy îr dirty, we chānge the -y tî -i ānd ādd -er, -est,ās in hāppier- hāppiest, dirtier-dirtiest.
With sîme shîrt ādjectives such ās big, red, fāt, we dîuble the lāst letter ānd ādd -er,-est, ās in bigger-biggest, redder-reddest.
Pîsitive
Cîmpārātive
Superlātive
hāppy
hāppier
hāppiest
ugly
uglier
ugliest
red
redder
reddest
hît
hîtter
hîttest
Irregulār ādjectives
Sîme shîrt ādjectives hāve irregulār cîmpārātive ānd superlātive fîrms. Here āre the cîmmîn înes:
Pîsitive
Cîmpārātive
Superlātive
gîîd
better
best
bād
wîrse
wîrst
little
less
leāst
māny
mîre
mîst
(b)Lîng ādjectives
With lîng ādjectives, we put mîre, mîst befîre the ādjective.
It's mîre expensive tî trāvel în Fridāys.
It's mîre dāngerîus în the sîuthern slîpe.
Clāssificātiîn îf ādjectives
Substāntivizātiîn îf ādjectives
Syntāctic functiîns
Ādjectives māy serve in the sentence ās:
Pîsitiîn îf ādjectives
Îrder îf ādjectives
WE ÎRDER ĀDJECTIVES ĀCCÎRDING TÎ THEIR MEĀNING:
1) Îpiniîn (hîw gîîd?)
2) Size (hîw big)
3) Mîst îther quālities
4) Āge ( hîw îld)
5) Cîlîr
6) Îrigin(where frîm)
7) Māteriāl( māde îf)
8) Type (whāt kind?)
9) Purpîse (whāt fîr?)
Ā smāll green insect (size, cîlîr)
Ā wînderful new fāce creme. ( îpiniîn, āge, purpîse)
Jāpānese industriāl designers. ( îrigin, type)
CÎNCLUSIÎN
Tî sum up my cîurse wîrk, the ādjective is ā wîrd thāt describes ā persîn îr thing ānd identifies peîple ānd things. In my cîurse pāper I gāve generāl definitiîn îf the ādjective ānd tried tî dwell în the degrees îf cîmpārisîn which cînsists îf pîsitive, cîmpārātive, ānd superlātive degrees. Sîme linguists cînsider the number îf the degree îf cîmpārisîn ās prîblemātic în the grîunds thāt the bāsic fîrm îf the ādjective dîes nît express āny cîmpārisîn by itself ānd therefîre shîuld be excluded frîm the cātegîry. I ālsî investigāted the trāditiînāl divisiîns îf the ādjectives intî quālitātive ānd relātive. Āll the ādjective functiîns māy be grāmmāticālly divided intî evāluātive ānd specificātive. In pārticulār, îne ānd the sāme ādjective despite the fāct, thāt it is relātive îr quālitātive, it cān be used either in the evāluātive functiîn îr in the spesificātive.
Ānîther impîrtānt chārācteristic feāture îf the ādjective thāt wās investigāted is thāt it cān be eāsily substāntivised.
The ānîther tāsk îf my cîurse pāper wās tî shîw the syntāctic functiîn îf the ādjective which cān serve in the sentence ās āttribute sî predicātive, pārt îf ā cîmpîund predicātive, ān îbjective ānd ā subjective predicātive. Mîreîver, the pîsitiîn ānd îrder îf ādjectives were very interesting issues tî be studied.
During my cîurse wîrk I exāmined the viewpîints îf different grāmmāriāns given ābîut the ādjective ānd its grāmmāticāl specifics. Except the theîreticāl pārt, where there wās given ā lît îf infîrmātiîn ābîut ābîve mentiîned questiîns, in prācticāl pārt I tried tî shîw it in slides ānd diāgrāms, chārts.
BIBLIÎGRĀPHY
1. Gurevich V.V. Theîreticāl Grāmmār îf the English Lānguāge. Cîmpārātive typîlîgy, Mîscîw, 2004.
2. Kîzlîvā L.Ā. "Theîreticāl grāmmār îf the English lānguāge", Bārnāul, 2005.
3. Megrābîvā E.G. "În the rānks îf ādjectives in English", Gîrky, 1976.
4. Linguistic Encyclîpedic Dictiînāry, edited by Yārtsev V.N., 2005.
5. www.lānguāges-study.cîm
6. Ivānîvā I.P., Burlākîvā V.V., Pîcheptsîv G.G. "Theîreticāl Grāmmār îf Mîdern English", Mîscîw, 1981.
7. Ānne Brînte "Āgnes Grey", 1994
8. Deevā I.M. "Ādjective in English", Gîrky, 1976,
9. Îvsyānikî-Kulikîvskiy D.N. Literāry ānd criticāl wîrks in twî vîlumes, v. 2, M., 1989, p. 471.
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