Variability of phraseological units in the British and American English and methods of their translation

Chudnivets A.O., Bachelor's Student at the Department of Germanic Philology

Summary

The article considers the analysis of the variability of phraseological units in the British and American English and methods of their translation. Phraseological units (PUs) fill lacunae in the lexical system of the language, and are often the only designations of properties, states and processes; they are designed to alleviate the emerging contradictions between the needs of thinking and the limited lexical resources of the language. The PUs variability was considered as the ability to form new or somehow change existing lexemes and phrasal innovations. It was revealed which exact transformations are typical in the specified variants of the English language in the context of the variation of its phraseological units. They were namely the following ones: expansion of the PU component composition, reduction of the PU component composition, and, above all, various types of substitution were also found during the analysis. We distinguished substitution with a synonymous word and a word with a synonymous meaning when there are American or British equivalents of the words, with a non-synonymous word, with a word with an antonymous meaning, with another component with a preposition, with another component with a wider meaning, with two non- synonymous components. There are also substitutions of the preposition only, of a component which first dictionary meaning does not coincide with the meaning of the replaced component, the substitution of components which meanings can be associated with each other, the substitution of several components, and the replacement of components that can be attributed to the same category.

The methods of translation of the considered PUs were analyzed and conclusions were drawn regarding possible ways of their translation. They include: the use of phraseological equivalent, analogue, loan translation, descriptive and antonymic translation.

Key words: phraseological unit, variability, component composition of a phraseological unit, British and American English, phraseological equivalent, analogue, transformations.

Анотація

Ємельянова О. В., Чуднівець А. О. Варіативність фразеологічних одиниць британського та американського варіантів англійської мови та способи їx перекладу

Статтю присвячено аналізу варіативності фразеологічних одиниць у британському та американському варіантах англійської мови та способи їх перекладу. Фразеологічні одиниці заповнюють лакуни в лексичній системі мови, і часто є єдиними позначеннями властивостей, станів і процесів, лише вони покликані послабити виникаючі протиріччя між потребами мислення та обмеженими лексичними ресурсами мови. Варіативність ФО була розглянута як їхня здатність формувати нові чи якимось чином змінювати існуючі лексеми та фразові інновації. Було виявлено які саме трансформації притаманні зазначеним варіантам англійської мови в контексті варіації її фразеологічних одиниць (ФО), а саме: розширення компонентного складу ФО, скорочення компонентного складу ФО, а також найбільше при аналізі було виявлено різних видів субституції. Ми виокремили субституцію синонімічним словом та словом із синонімічним значенням, коли мають місце американські або британські еквіваленти слів, несинонімічним словом, словом із антонімічним значенням, заміну на інший компонент із прийменником, на інший компонент із більш ширшим значенням, на два несинонімічні компоненти. А також окремо були винесені субституція лише прийменника, заміна на компонент, чиє перше словникове значення не співпадає зі значенням замінюваного компоненту, субституція компонентів, значення яких можна асоціювати між собою, субституція декількох компонентів та заміна компонентів, які можна віднести до однієї категорії.

Були проаналізовані способи перекладу розглянутих ФО та зроблені висновки щодо можливих шляхів перекладу. Були виділені такі способи як використання фразеологічного еквіваленту, залучення до перекладу фразеологічного аналогу, залучення методу калькування до перекладу англійських ФО, якщо дозволяє це робити контекст, а також використання таких видів перекладу як описовий та антонімічний.

Ключові слова: фразеологічна одиниця, варіативність, компонентний склад фразеологічної одиниці, британський та американський варіанти англійської мови, фразеологічний еквівалент, аналог, трансформації.

Introduction

Formulation of the problem. In the systems of English and American English there are numerous differences at all linguistic levels. The main reason for the existence of such differences should be considered the relatively autonomous development of the American version over a long historical period. Despite the fact that in the American and British versions there are numerous inconsistencies at the phonological, orthographic, grammatical and lexico-semantic levels, the nature of these inconsistencies does not affect the English language system as a whole. It gives a reason to consider American and British English as variants of the same language, and not to consider them as two different languages. Phraseological units fill these lacunae in the lexical system of the language, and are often the only denotations of properties, states and processes. They are designed to alleviate the emerging contradictions between the needs of thinking and the limited lexical resources of the language. We consider the variability of PUs as their ability to form new or somehow change existing lexemes and phrasal innovations.

The research topic is relevant not only because of the increased in linguistic science attention to the comparative study of the problems of the structural-semantic specificity relationship, stability and reproducibility of PUs, but also to the changes and development of the English language. Moreover, the relevance of the study of PU in the British and American English is dictated by the growing interest in comparative studies in the field of consideration of interpretation methods in the context of the compared languages general and specific means. Both variants of the English language are widely used in the world. Therefore, consideration of possible ways of translating their PUs is also relevant, since the translation of different types of PU can cause difficulties for translators. Although linguists have devoted quite a lot of research to the PUs translation, the problem of their interpretation in the Ukrainian language still exists.

The subject matter of the study is the specificity of the PUs functioning in modern versions of the British and American English, and the peculiarities of the translation into the Ukrainian language. The objective of the research is the variability of phraseological units in the British and American variants of the English language. The aim of the study is to analyze the variability of phraseological units in the British and American English and to find and analyze possible ways of their translation into Ukrainian language.

Presentation of the main research material

When it comes to the variability of PUs in different discourses, all their transformations are considered as facts of their functioning in texts of different styles in comparison with the corresponding basic models of PUs according to their definitions in dictionaries. Changes in the PUs semantics vary from the modification of one of the components to a significant contextual PUs reinterpretation, where only the PUs internal form with numerous contextual associations and semantic connections remains. In her research, scientist G. Kuznetsova grouped the cases of PUs transformations into five types (and 17 subtypes) of transformations according to the identified factors [1]: expansion of the component composition of the phraseological unit; reduction of the component composition of the phraseological unit; substitution of components of a phraseological unit; transformation based on certain grammatical processes within a phraseological unit; contextual reinterpretation of a phraseological unit with subtypes within each type.

However, when analyzing the variability of phraseological components in the British and American English, the transformations types are somewhat different. As such, we continue to rely on three types, that are the main in our opinion, such as expansion, reduction of the PUs component composition and substitution of PUs components. In addition, various types of component replacement were found, which we classified into separate groups and analyzed them.

But first, there is a need to start with the expansion of the component composition of the PU, which can be illustrated with the following example: home from home (Br) - home away from home (Am). That is, we can see how the word away is added in the American version, and because of which the component composition of the PU is expanded.

It is widely believed that the American version of English is simplified because various constructions or rules of the British version have been changed to be simpler or shorter. The examples of this process can be the following idioms: tell the time (Br) and tell time (Am). As we can see, in the American version the article the is not used. The similar situation is with the idiom you have to be joking (Am), which in the British version looks like this: you've got to be joking (Br), because of the frequent use of have got in the British English.

The reduction of the component composition of the PU can be illustrated by an example: to go the whole nine yards (Am) - to go the whole hog (Br).

It is important to note that many examples can be given precisely of the substitution of one component of the PU by a synonymous word, when the American or British equivalents of the components are used:

- to cross somebody's path (Br) - to cross someone's track (Am);

- lock the stable door when the horse has been stolen (Br) - lock the barn door when the horse has been stolen (Am);

- too big for one's trousers (Br) - too big for one's pants (Am);

- to sweep something under the carpet (Br) - to sweep something under the rug (Am);

Less “popular”, but also common, is the substitution of components, when one component is replaced by a non- synonymous one, and the semantic meaning does not change: phraseological american english

- enough to make a cat laugh (Br) - enough to make a horse laugh (Am);

- a drop in the ocean (Br) - a drop in the bucket (Am);

- not touch something/someone with a barge-pole (Br) - not touch something/someone with a ten-foot pole (Am);

- to go pear-shaped (Br) - to go south (Am).

An example of substitution, when a component with a synonymous meaning is replaced, and the meaning of the phraseological expression itself does not change: to take something with a grain of salt (Br) - to take something with a pinch of salt (Am). Another example can be the idiom a storm in a teacup (Br) - a tempest in a teapot (Am). Can't see the wood for the trees (Br) - can't see the forest for the trees (Am) and skeleton in the cupboard (Br) - skeleton in the closet (Am) can be also mentioned in this category.

There is a substitution of one of the components for a word with an antonymic meaning, while the semantic meaning is preserved: it's down to someone (Br) - it's up to someone (Am).

Replacement of one component of the PU by another component with a preposition: to touch wood (Br) - to knock on wood (Am).

Substitution can also occur when one component is replaced by two non-synonymous ones: to throw a spanner in the works (Br) - to throw a monkey wrench in the works (Am).

A case of substitution, when one of the components is replaced by another with a wider meaning: to beat a dead horse (Am) - to flog a dead horse (Br). To flog has the meaning to beat or hit, especially with a tool like a stick or rod [2].

The interesting case of substitution is illustrated in the example: to put in one's tuppence worth (Br) - to put in one's two cent's worth (Am). The word tuppence comes from the word combination two pence [3], which basically is the name of the coins which had been used in the Great Britain till 1971 [4], while cents were used in the USA.

Analyzing variations of phraseological units, one can see cases of substitution of only the preposition: a new lease of life (Br) - a new lease on life (Am).

Sometimes there is a substitution of a component for another component which first dictionary meaning does not coincide with the meaning of the replaced component: to blow someone's own trumpets (Br) - to blow someone's own horn (Am). Trumpet is a wind musical instrument. If you look up the word horn in the dictionary, the first meaning of the word is a part of the animal's body, then it means an instrument used to make signal, and only after that it means a musical instrument [5].

Replacement of PU components, the meaning of which can be associated with each other: peaks and troughs (Br) - peaks and valleys (Am). Trough has the meaning of “низина” only in this phraseological combination, and valley is translated as “долина”, which is, in fact, “низина” between hills or mountains.

Separately, it is possible to bring out cases when words that can be attributed to the same category are replaced. For instance, table it (Br) - shelve it (Am). Both table and shelve belong to the “furniture” category.

There are also cases of substitution of several components and expansion of the component composition at the same time: to call a spade a spade (Br) - to call it as one sees it (Am).

It is important that phraseology as a science is closely related to emotional and expressive units, which always have a full or partial figurative meaning. Only metaphoricity of PUs causes difficulties for translators and interpreters, and if we add certain national and cultural features of phraseological expressions to it, the translation process becomes even more complicated. Despite this, the presence of PUs in texts of various styles is very important, since they, as catchphrases, sayings, idiomatic expressions, etc., add different semantic colouring to the language. Therefore, their translation is a very important process of transferring these semantic and national features.

While translating certain stages in lexical absorption of a foreign word by a receiving language such as, for example, the initial stage which foresees the entry or penetration of a foreign word into the vocabulary of a receiving language. The next is the inclusion stage which is characterized by transliteration that is the type of spelling which indicates the written way of borrowing, instability, variability of pronunciation and a word spelling, which indicates its phonetic development and tendency to accept spelling trends and orthoepy of a receiving language. And the last stage is considered to be an adaptation one, which it is characterized by an increase in the level of morphemic divisibility of the foreign word stem and adaptation of the word to the grammatical norms of the receiving language [6].

Among the main ways of translating the PUs variations of the British and American versions, we singled out the following:

- phraseological equivalent;

- phraseological analogue;

- loan translation;

- descriptive translation;

- antonymic translation.

A phraseological equivalent can be considered a constant equivalent correspondence, which for a certain time and place no longer depends on the context [7]. Translation using a phraseological analogue is a process of translation by choosing one of several possible synonyms. There is always one equivalent, however, there may be several analogues. Various translation transformations are used when, in order to accurately convey an idea, the translator must break away from the original text, vocabulary and phraseological correspondences and look for a solution based on the whole: from the content, ideological orientation and style of the original text.

Among the previously discussed PUs, both variants of some phraseological units can be translated by phraseological equivalents when the components have been replaced by Americanisms or Briticisms that have the same meaning. For instance, skeleton in the closet (Am), skeleton in the cupboard (Br) - скелет у шафі, to cross somebody's path (Br), to cross someone's track (Am) - переходити комусь дорогу, lock the stable door when the horse has been stolen (Br), lock the barn door when the horse has been stolen (Am) - нема чого замикати стайню, коли коня вже вкрали.

In the case of the PU knock on wood (Am), the equivalent can only be used to translate the American version - постукати по дереву. For the British version touch the wood an analogy can be applied and the translator can reproduce this expression in the Ukrainian language by using the sound imitation тьфу-тьфу- тьфу, which has the same meaning, but is built on a different image.

The same situation with the American variant of PU can't see the forest for the trees, which we can translate using the phraseological equivalent: не бачити лісу за деревами. Although to translate the British variant can't see the wood for the trees the one can also use the same Ukrainian PU, but it will not be a translation using the equivalent anymore.

The partial equivalent can be used to translate PUs a storm in a teacup (Br), a tempest in a teapot (Am) - буря в склянці води, home from home (Br), home away from home (Am) - як вдома, to put in one's tuppence worth (Br), to put in one's two cent's worth (Am) - вставляти свої п'ять копійок, вставити свого гривеника, a drop in the ocean (Br), a drop in the bucket (Am) - крапля в морі.

It is easier to translate some PUs variants ofBritish andAmerican English by using the phraseological analogue, due to the fact that we can find more variants of translation: to throw a monkey wrench in the works (Am), to throw a spanner in the works (Br) - вставляти палиці в колеса, ложку з рота вибивати, ставити підніжку, not touch something/someone with a barge-pole (Br), not touch something/someone with a ten-foot pole (Am) - обминати стороною, обходити десятою дорогою/вулицею, подалі від лиха, a new lease of life (Br), a new lease on life (Am) - нове дихання, почати з чистого аркуша паперу, to go the whole nine yards (Am), to go the whole hog (Br) - наповну, аж гай шумить.

Such PUs as to go pear-shaped (Br), to go south (Am) have more than one meaning. In these cases, the translator should also take into account the contextual meaning of the expression to make the translation as accurate as possible. For instance, to go south (Am) has three different meanings [8]:

1. To escape, to vanish, to disappear;

2. To depreciate, to lose quality or value;

3. To quit, fail or fall apart.

Therefore, if the PU is used in the first meaning in the text, then the most appropriate translation option will be the use of analogues розвіятись як дим, як у воду упасти or піти пропадом. The most apposite variant for the second meaning is перевестись ні на що, and as for the translation of the third meaning, the Ukrainian PU залишитися з носом can be used.

To translate some idioms, you can use analogues not only among catchphrases or language cliches, but also among proverbs and sayings. As an example, the PUs to take something with a grain of salt (Br), to take something with a pinch of salt (Am) can be presented, which we can translate with the help of:

1) catchphrases:

а) не приймати за чисту монету;

б) не йняти віри;

в) ділити надвоє;

2) proverbs and sayings:

а) доти не звіриш, доки не зміриш;

б) не вір губі, положи на зуби;

в) хто скоро повірить, той скоро й пропадає;

г) не всякому духу/слуху віруй.

It is impossible to find equivalents or analogues for some considered FUs. In this case, the one can use a descriptive translation, that is, in fact, a type of translation, when the overall meaning of the PU is explained. For instance, tell the time (Br), tell time (Am) - розрізняти час на аналоговому годиннику, too big for one's trousers (Br), too big for one's pants (Am) - занадто гордий або самовпевнений, enough to make a cat laugh (Br), enough to make a horse laugh (Am) - бути дуже смішним, it's down to someone (Br), it's up to someone (Am) - тобі вирішувати, table it (Br), shelve it (Am) - затримувати, відкладати або призупиняти щось для майбутнього розгляду чи обговорення.

The PUs to sweep something under the carpet (Br), to sweep something under the rug (Am) can also be translated using the descriptive translation - замовчувати, or using the loan translation if it is allowed by the context - замітати щось під килим.

The loan translation is a literal translation ofEnglish phraseology, but it should be noted that this method can be used only if the result of the translation is an expression whose depicture will be easy for the Ukrainian-speaking recipient to perceive. Another example can be given: to beat a dead horse (Am) - мертвого коня бити, to flog a dead hourse (Br) - мервого коня батогом бити.

In some cases, if the translator encounters any problems while translating the British and American versions of the PUs into Ukrainian, he can use the antonymic translation: to call a spade a spade (Br), to call it as one sees it (Am) (називати речі їхніми іменами, говорити прямо та начистоту) - кружляти манівцями (говорити натяками).

Conclusions and prospects for further research

Having analyzed the variability of the British and American English, we came to the conclusion that among the PUs transformations, the substitution of the component composition is the most common. Various types of substitution have been identified, which relate specifically to the PUs variability of the British and American English. The variability of PUs, that is, their ability to form new or somehow change existing lexemes and phrasal innovations, among other problems can also cause certain difficulties in the translation. The translator needs to simultaneously take into account the structural, semantic and even national features of PUs from a foreign environment that he encounters. The study of possible ways of PUs translation made it possible to identify the most useful techniques for the translation of phraseological variations of both variants of the English language. In our opinion, the usage of phraseological equivalent, phraseological analogue, loan translation, descriptive and antonymic translation will best serve for the PUs translation.

The prospect for further research we see in thorough study of the PUs variability in the British and American English, as well as, possibly, the creation of various translations of new or already translated PUs to expand their translation options.

References

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