Bilingual dictionaries in theoretical and educational lexicography

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Department of Foreign Languages

State Higher Educational Institution

“Donbas State Pedagogical University”, Sloviansk, Dnipro

Bilingual dictionaries in theoretical and educational lexicography

Slabouz Viktoriia Vasylivna

PhD in Philology, Associate Professor

Abstract

The article is devoted to the main issues of the study of modern lexicographic science, and its theoretical and educational areas, represented mainly by foreign researchers. The concept of lexicography and the main types of dictionaries are considered. The linguocentric and anthropocentric approaches to the study of science are analyzed. The distinctive features of educational lexicography are the consideration of methodical requirements and the specificity of the approach to the selection of material in dictionaries. The analysis of dictionary parameters is presented, which allows extracting lexicographic information about a word, and ways of its reflection in a dictionary entry, as well as establishing the generality and specificity of the lexicographic tradition as a whole. Based on the parameters, the classification of educational dictionaries is offered. In lexicographic practice, theoretical searches are embodied in the field of studying ways to identify and semantize cultural information. The criteria used to distinguish types of dictionaries are represented. The practical and theoretical approaches are studied in considering the macrostructure of bilingual dictionaries. The description of the foundations of lexicographic construction, planning, and organization of vocabulary work is given. The correlation of linguistic and extralinguistic information in the dictionary is a significant issue for modern lexicography. On the one hand, bilingual dictionaries are viewed as a repository of culture, and on the other hand, as bridges between different cultures, presenting not only linguistic forms but also cultural facts. The inclusion of a cultural studies component in the composition of a dictionary entry corresponds to the anthropocentric orientation of modern lexicographic science. The article discusses the main types and specifics of bilingual dictionaries, and their typological functions based on the classification of the user's skills. It is concluded that the types of educational dictionaries correspond to the main types of philological dictionaries. Their main difference lies in the fact that educational dictionaries have a teaching orientation and are used as one of the teaching aids. Educational dictionaries are anthropocentric. Their main task is to help a person in the formation of language as an accessory of consciousness and in the effective use of this or that language.

Keywords: theoretical and educational lexicography, macro structure of dictionary, bilingual dictionary, lexical units, activity/passivity criterion, intralinguistic and extralinguistic parameters.

Слабоуз Вікторія Василівна, кандидат філологічних наук, доцент кафедри іноземних мов, Державний вищий навчальний заклад «Донбаський державний педагогічний університет», м. Слов'янськ, м. Дніпро

Двомовні словники у теоретичній та навчальній лексикографії

Анотація

bilingual dictionary lexicography

Стаття присвячена основним питанням дослідження сучасної лексикографічної науки, її теоретичного та навчального напрямів, що представлені переважно зарубіжними дослідниками. Розглянуто поняття лексикографії, основні типи словників. Проаналізовано лінгвоцентричний та антропоцентричний підходи до вивчення науки. Відмінними рисами навчальної лексикографії є врахування методичних вимог, специфіка підходу до відбору матеріалу в словниках. Подано аналіз словникових параметрів, що дозволяє виділити лексикографічну інформацію про слово, способи його відображення в словниковій статті, а також встановити загальність і специфіку лексикографічної традиції в цілому. За наведеними параметрами запропоновано класифікацію навчальних словників. У лексикографічній практиці теоретичні пошуки втілюються в галузі вивчення способів ідентифікації та семантизації культурної інформації. Представлено критерії, за якими розрізняють типи словників. Досліджено практичні та теоретичні підходи до розгляду макроструктури двомовних словників. Подано характеристику основ лексикографічної побудови, планування та організації словникової роботи. Співвідношення лінгвістичної та екстралінгвістичної інформації у словнику є актуальною проблемою сучасної лексикографії. З одного боку, двомовні словники розглядаються як сховище культури, а з іншого - як містки між різними культурами, що представляють не лише мовні форми, а й культурні факти. Включення культурологічної складової до складу словникової статті відповідає антропоцентричній орієнтації сучасної лексикографічної науки. У статті розглянуто основні види та специфіку двомовних словників, їх типологічні функції на основі класифікації навичок користувача. Зроблено висновок про те, що типи навчальних словників відповідають основним типам філологічних словників. Їх відмінність полягає в тому, що навчальні словники мають навчальну спрямованість і використовуються як один із навчальних посібників. Їх головне завдання - допомогти людині у формуванні мови як приналежності свідомості та в ефективному використанні тієї чи іншої мови.

Ключові слова: теоретична та навчальна лексикографія, макроструктура словника, двомовний словник, лексичні одиниці, критерій активності/пасивності, інтралінгвістичні та екстралінгвістичні параметри.

Introduction

Dictionaries play an important role in various fields of human activities, contribute to improving the correctness and expressiveness of the speech of native speakers and language learners, and reflect the knowledge accumulated by the linguocultural society throughout the history of its development. Dictionaries perform a special function in the field of education, they act as intermediaries between society and the user of the dictionary, and they are necessary to eliminate discrepancies between individual and collective consciousness.

Turning to the analysis of dictionary parameters allows one to extract lexicographic information about the word, and how it is reflected in the dictionary entry, as well as to establish the generality and specificity of the lexicographic tradition as a whole.

A distinctive feature of modern lexicography is the synthesis of philology and culture in the broad sense of the word, which largely explains the lexicographic activity in modern linguistics. Modern lexicography is characterized by an increased interest in historical and cultural information, which is reflected in the emergence of new types of dictionaries - ethnolinguistic, linguocultural, linguoculturological, and cultural. In addition, cultural information is beginning to be included in traditional types of dictionaries, including bilingual dictionaries.

To date, the extensive lexicographic practice provides diverse and rich material regarding the principles of representation of linguistic phenomena in dictionaries of various types. Nevertheless, many issues of both theoretical and practical importance cannot be considered unambiguously resolved yet. One of these issues is the issue of principles of selection, classification, and lexicographic interpretation of linguistic material in a bilingual dictionary. Bilingual dictionaries provide an opportunity to learn foreign languages and learn about other cultures.

Analysis of recent studies and publications. Dictionaries have long been used in the educational process of schools and institutions of higher education. In the 1920s and 1950s of the 20^th century, there were few educational dictionaries, that is, those that were specially created for pupils/students and teachers/lecturers. Starting from the end of the 50s of the 20^th century, their creation acquires a systematic character, and at the end of the 60s, the educational dictionary officially receives the status of a type of school/university educational literature, becoming a part of the educational and methodical complex.

Currently, the issues of the peculiarities of creating educational dictionaries and certain issues of theoretical and educational lexicography have been investigated by a well-known cohort of foreign and Ukrainian linguists, in particular O. Bondarets, V. Busel, B. Halas, P. Horetskyi, S. Derba, O. Dzera, V. Dubichynskyi, O. Krovytska, T. Kulchytska, L. Poliuha, O. Rabulets, O. Taranenko, I. Shevchenko, F. Shymkevych, H. Bejoint, M. Benson, M. Cubillo, S. Gramley, F. Hausmann, B. Svensen, C. Vries, R. Wells, etc. Constantly developing intercultural interaction, and strengthening contacts between representatives of different linguistic cultures, determine the relevance of the further study of the specifics of a bilingual dictionary.

The purpose of the research. The purpose of the publication is to present the main issues of the study of modern lexicographic science, its theoretical and educational directions, as well as a detailed analysis of linguocentric and anthropocentric approaches to the study of lexicography, mainly by foreign scholars.

Presentation of the main material of the research

The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines a “dictionary” as “a book dealing with individual words of a language (or certain groups of them), providing information about their description, pronunciation, meaning and function, synonyms, etymology, or at least part of this information; for ease of use, the words are arranged in a certain order, now in most languages alphabetically, in dictionaries of a larger volume, information is illustrated with quotations from works of art ' [1].

Lexicography deals with a whole range of issues related to the writing of dictionaries and their structure. Although the term “lexicography” has entered into scientific use relatively recently, the art of creating dictionaries is quite ancient. Even in the Sumerian culture (the 27^th - 25^th centuries BC), people tried to explain obscure words by compiling dictionaries (glossaries, vocabularies). The beginning of the so-called “early dictionary period” dates back to the 16^th century. It was at this time that dictionaries of the type to which one is accustomed appear. From the middle of the 20^th century, the experience accumulated by practical lexicography began to be generalized and systematized, which led to the emergence of theoretical lexicography. It is no coincidence that R. Hartmann defines lexicography as “a developing scientific direction with practical (creation of dictionaries) and theoretical (research of dictionaries) sections” [2].

Practical lexicography performs socially significant functions, and provides teaching of a language, both native and non-native; description and normalization of the native language; interlingual communication; scientific study of the vocabulary of a language.

Theoretical lexicography involves defining the foundations of lexicographic construction, describing the planning and organization of vocabulary work, developing and forming rules for lexicography; developing the macrostructure of the dictionary (selection of vocabulary, principles of arrangement of words in dictionary entries, inclusion of improperly lexicographic materials in the dictionary corpus, e. g. illustrations, etc.); developing the microstructure of the dictionary (individual dictionary entries). Herbert Wiegand, speaking of theoretical lexicography (metalexicography), defines its subject as a combination of three types of lexicographic activity: 1) the dictionary plan; 2) the development of the lexicographic file; 3) writing the text of the dictionary [3, P. 17].

One of the central issues of theoretical lexicography is the issue of the main types of dictionaries and their specifics. The following criteria are used to distinguish types of dictionaries: 1) the coverage of lexical material: whether the vocabulary is general or limited by certain conditions, whether regional and social dialects, jargons, slang, and archaisms are included in the vocabulary; 2) the number of languages represented: monolingual, bilingual, multilingual dictionaries; 3) the nature of dictionary entries: whether they are only lexical or encyclopedic; 4) the temporal criterion: diachronic (dynamic) or synchronous (static) dictionaries; 5) the arrangement of dictionary entries: alphabetical, semantic; 6) the purpose of the dictionary; 7) the user specifics.

As it is known, the two main types of dictionaries are encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries. Encyclopedic dictionaries contain information about objects, concepts, phenomena, and linguistic dictionaries contain information about words that name objects, concepts, and phenomena. Linguistic dictionaries are divided into one-, two-, and multi-valued. In monolingual dictionaries, words are explained by means of words of the same language. In multi-valued and two-valued dictionaries, the meanings of words of one language are explained by comparison with the words of another language. Bilingual translated lexicography has long been purely practical. The problems associated with writing multilingual dictionaries were considered, as a rule, in articles in collections on problems of lexicography or in introductory articles to dictionaries. However, modern theoretical lexicography is characterized by a growing interest in the problems of compiling bilingual dictionaries.

Traditionally, a bilingual dictionary was called a translation dictionary, and indeed, for a long time, the translation of texts was the main goal of creating such dictionaries. Bilingual dictionaries arose in connection with the development of political, economic, and cultural ties between peoples. Such a dictionary provides the user with information about the vocabulary and grammar of another language, as well as concepts about a different culture, and a different vision of the world. R. Hartmann and G. James understand a bilingual dictionary as “a type of dictionary that correlates the lexical composition of two languages through translation equivalents, as opposed to a monolingual dictionary in which interpretations are given in one language... By providing lexical equivalents, a bilingual dictionary helps language learners and translators to read or create texts in a foreign language. However, finding suitable lexical equivalents is quite a challenge, especially in terms of languages associated with different cultures” [4, P. 53].

The definition of a bilingual dictionary given by L. Zgusta has become traditional, “The main goal of a bilingual dictionary is to correlate the lexical units of one language with those lexical units of another language that are equivalent to them in lexical meaning” [5, P. 279].

The definitions represented make it possible to draw the following conclusions: 1) a bilingual dictionary correlates the lexical systems of two languages; 2) the meaning of the lexical unit of the source language is conveyed by means of an equivalent in the target language; 3) establishing the equivalence between the lexical units of two different languages is a difficult task, especially if these languages represent cultures that are very distant from each other.

Currently, there is a wide variety of bilingual dictionaries. Traditionally, they are divided into two large groups: general dictionaries that translate common vocabulary from one language to another; and scientific, scientific-technical, and technical dictionaries, which mainly include terms for various branches of science and technology or highly specialized terminology. B. T. Atkins and M. Rudell divide bilingual dictionaries into unidirectional and bidirectional [6]. This distinction is related to the structure of the dictionary and, as a result, affects the functions and meaning of these dictionaries for users. For example, a unidirectional English-French dictionary has one text, with the source language being English and the target language being French. The situation is different with bidirectional dictionaries, in which there are two texts: in one the source language is English, and the target language is French, in the second it is vice versa. Further, according to the authors, the functions of unidirectional and bidirectional dictionaries also differ. In the case of a unidirectional dictionary, for a native speaker of the source language, the dictionary is an “encoding” (active) dictionary, and for a native speaker of the target language, it is a “decoding” (passive) one [6]. Of the two texts of the bidirectional dictionary, each performs two functions simultaneously - encoding and decoding.

The distinction between active and passive dictionaries is also related to the different skills that they contribute to the development of users. According to T. Piotrowski, the basic skills of a bilingual dictionary user can be divided into passive (decoding) and active (encoding); passive are the skills of understanding the text in the target language and translating the text from the target language into the source language, active are the skills of translating the text from the source language into the target language and creating the text in the target language [7].

The classification of skills is based on the typology of the functions of a bilingual dictionary, presented in the work by J. Magdan, who distinguishes: 1) understanding of the text in a foreign language without translation into the native language (understanding of the text in the target language); 2) translation of the text from the native language into a foreign language (understanding of the text in the source language, creation of the text in the target language); 3) creation of a text in a foreign language without relying on the text in the native language (production of a text in the target language); 4) translation of the text from a foreign language into the native language (understanding of the text in the target language, creation of the text in the source language) [8].

Depending on their size, bilingual dictionaries contain two parts, two sections, which are either combined in one or divided into two books. One section lists lexemes of the source language and their equivalents in the target language, the other, on the contrary, presents the lexemes of the target language and their equivalents in the source language. This combination of bilingual materials suggests the possibility of successful use of these dictionaries by speakers of both languages. However, as C. Marello rightly notes, “the fact that a bilingual dictionary consists of two parts... does not guarantee that it is really bidirectional in the sense that it meets the requirements of users representing two language communities” [9, P. 335]. A bidirectional dictionary should contain explanations in both the source language and the target language. Grammar information is also among the constant components. The same concerns phonetic transcription.

In addition to the activity/passivity criterion, there are other criteria for selecting groups of bilingual dictionaries. Thus, A. Al-Kazimi formulates seven binary oppositions, three of which can be attributed to bilingual lexicography, namely: dictionaries of spoken and literary language, dictionaries for “live” and machine translation, and, finally, general and specialized dictionaries [10].

Currently, linguistics is undergoing a “lexicographical boom”, which reflects both the emerging awareness of the value of culture and purely pragmatic requests. The super-task of modern lexicography is to reflect the “naive” picture of the world embodied in this language [11, P. 86]. A main trend of modern lexicography is the desire to include extralinguistic information in explanatory dictionaries. According to the researchers, the reflection in the explanatory dictionary of the necessary extralinguistic information only increases the information potential of the dictionary entry and allows one to show different aspects of the existence of the word more fully. This position corresponds to modern ideas about the constant interaction of linguistic and encyclopedic knowledge in the meaning of the word. Thus, the theory of general lexicography has been formed, practical lexicography has accumulated rich experience in describing the language, and a new direction, educational lexicography has declared itself in its bowels.

Educational lexicography is understood as a complex linguo- methodical discipline, the content of which is the theoretical and practical aspects of the description of language units in dictionaries and other dictionary-type works for educational purposes. The fundamental property of educational lexicography is its anthropocentric character, i.e. conscious focus on meeting the needs of students. The following are usually distinguished as the main sections of educational lexicography: 1) theory and practice of creating educational dictionaries; 2) theory and practice of creating lexical minima; 3) theory and practice of creating educational lexicostatistics; 4) theory and practice of creating teaching manuals on the vocabulary of the lexicographic type; 5) theory and practice of presentation and semantization of vocabulary in the dictionary of the textbook and lesson dictionaries.

Traditionally, there are two types of educational dictionaries:

1) language-oriented learning dictionaries; 1) educational dictionaries focused on the one who will use them. The task of dictionaries of the first type is to develop a detailed and comprehensive lexicographic development of a certain lexical array, taking into account the fact that the readers are foreigners. The task of educational dictionaries of the second type is to represent the data recorded in the dictionaries of the first type lexicographically, prepared taking into account the specific characteristics of the non-Ukrainian reader (age, language training, professional interests, native language, etc.). Thus, the creation of language-oriented dictionaries must precede the creation of reader-oriented dictionaries. After analyzing the original native and foreign sources of literature the following definition of an educational dictionary can be given - it is a book containing a list of words ordered according to one principle or another, meeting methodical requirements, usually drawn up in the form of a small volume and providing quick and easy references. In addition, domestic and foreign researchers determine the parameters according to which any educational dictionary can be evaluated: 1) the purpose of the dictionary; 2) the intralinguistic parameters of the dictionary (a unit (level) of description, an aspect (side) of description, the scope of the material (the nature of the “cut” from the lexical system of the language); intralinguistic parameters are the main and defining for any educational dictionary; 3) the extralinguistic parameters of the dictionary which bring an educational dictionary closer to an encyclopedia; it is because of the extralinguistic parameters that such units of description appear in educational dictionaries as objects of material culture, concepts of spiritual culture, regional and cultural components, as well as aspects of description, such as the nature of the reflection of logical categories in a given language, reflection by means of the language of various conceptual pictures of the world [2].

Based on the above three parameters, it is advisable to offer the following classification of educational dictionaries: 1) according to the purpose of the dictionary: a) general (for all language learners); b) specialized (for children, youth, schoolchildren, students, tourists, scientists, etc.);

2) according to the intralinguistic parameters: a) dictionaries organized by language units (levels) (dictionaries of morphemes, words, phrases); b) dictionaries organized by aspects (sides) of the language, as well as by functional-semantic categories (lexical, derivational, grammatical, functional- semantic); c) onomasiological and semasiological dictionaries (synthesizing and analyzing language models); d) dictionaries of elementary, basic, active, passive, all vocabulary of the language; e) dictionaries of common and special vocabulary; f) dictionaries of neutral and stylistic marked vocabulary; g) monolingual; h) bilingual; 3) according to the extralinguistic parameters: a) educational encyclopedias (dictionaries of proper names, sayings, proverbs, popular expressions and idioms, maxims, etc.).

It should be noted that the educational dictionary should include various kinds of information related not so much to the word as such, but to its assimilation by pupils/students: particularity or other indicators of the importance of the word, connections of this word with other words (paradigmatic - systemic, syntagmatic -textual, associative - associated with storage in memory), spelling, morphemic composition, sometimes etymology, correlation with the corresponding semantic words of the native language, etc.

Modern lexicography is a vocabulary industry that satisfies the need for a wide variety of types of information about a word. This science develops in two main directions. One direction is the creation of specialized dictionaries that would contain information of only one type (for example, only about the origin of a word or its spelling). The other one is the creation of “complex” dictionaries that would include, if possible, all the information about the word: they would not only give an interpretation of its meaning, grammatical characteristics, pronunciation, and spelling rules but also describe its semantic connections with other words (synonyms, antonyms), features its use in different styles of speech. Sometimes, for completeness, such complex dictionaries also include encyclopedic information about the thing that the word names. Various types of dictionaries are being developed depending on who they are addressed to (academic, educational, for general use, reference dictionaries for professionals in various fields of activity, and dictionaries for various technical, applied purposes).

The conclusions

Dictionaries play an important role in solving the problem of “language and culture”. On the one hand, a dictionary is “a snapshot of an ever-renewing and in motion language”, on the other hand, it is a cultural phenomenon that “not only reflects modern culture but also captures its previous states” [12, P. 295].

In general, the types of educational dictionaries correspond to the main types of philological dictionaries. Their main difference lies in the fact that educational dictionaries have a teaching orientation and are used as one of teaching aids. Educational dictionaries are anthropocentric. Their main task is to help a person in the formation of language as an accessory of consciousness and in the effective use of this or that language.

Bilingual dictionaries are special lexicographic publications representing units of one language and their equivalents in another language. Different types of bilingual dictionaries are aimed at developing different skills in users who are native speakers of the source language and the target language. Bilingual dictionaries are traditionally divided into active (bidirectional) and passive (unidirectional). A bilingual dictionary establishes links between two languages, so it also reveals the relationship between two cultures: “the left-hand side of a bilingual dictionary typically presents a list of cultural facts encoded by the lexemes of the source language, while the right-hand side contains a parallel list of equivalent cultural facts from another language”. The lexicographic information concentrated in the form of labels makes it possible to present a complex and multifaceted picture of the word lexeme not only in the dictionary but also in language and speech. For modern lexicography, the problem of the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic (encyclopedic, regional studies, etc.) information in the dictionary is significant. Bilingual dictionaries are seen as a repository of culture, on the one hand, and as bridges between different cultures, on the other. The relationship between culture and dictionaries (both monolingual and multilingual) was clearly formulated by R. Roberts, who points out that “dictionaries represent not only language but also culture. Dictionaries represent culture because words are associated with culture. Thus, dictionaries, which are an archive of the words of a language, actually represent a culture, enclosed in language” [12, P. 279].

References

1. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. URL: https://www.oxfordleamersdictionaiies.com/ definition/english/dictionary?q=dictionary [in English].

2. Hartmann, R. R. K. (2011). Teaching and Researching Lexicography (Applied Linguistics in Action Series). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited [in English].

3. Wiegand, H. E. (1983). On the Structure and Content of a General Theory of Lexicography. Proceedings Papers from the International Conference on Lexicography. Exeter, 9-12 September, 13-20.

4. Hartmann, R. K., & James G. (1998). Dictionary of lexicography. New York: Routledge [in English].

5. Zgusta, L. (1971). Manual of lexicography. Prague: Academia [in English].

6. Atkins, B. T., & Rundell M. (2008). Oxford Guide of Practical Lexicography. New York: Oxford University Press [in English].

7. Piotrowski, T. (1994). Problems in bilingual lexicography. Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego [in English].

8. Mugdan, J. (1992). On the Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries. Hyldgaard- Jensen, Karl and Arne Zettersten (Eds.). Symposium on Lexicography V. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Lexicography May 3-5, 1990 at the University of Copenhagen. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer, 17-24 [in English].

9. Marello, C. (1999). The Bilingual Dictionary: Definition, History, bi-directionality. Lexicography: Critical Concepts. Vol. 2: Reference works across time, space, and languages. London: Routledge. Reinhard Rudolf Karl Hartmann (Ed.), 325-342 [in English].

10. Al-Kasimi, A. (1997). Linguistics and bilingual dictionaries. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 246-273 [in English].

11. Landau, S. I. (2001). Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [in English].

12. Roberts, R. (2004). Dictionaries and Culture. Dictionary vision, research, and practice: Selected papers from the 12th International Symposium on Lexicography. Copenhagen, Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, H. Gottlieb, J. E. Mogensen [in English].

Література

1. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. URL: https://www.oxfordleamersdictionaiies.com/ definition/english/dictionary?q=dictionary

2. Hartmann R. R. K. Teaching and Researching Lexicography (Applied Linguistics in Action Series). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. 211 p.

3. Wiegand H. E. On the Structure and Content of a General Theory of Lexicography. Proceedings Papers from the International Conference on Lexicography. Exeter, 9-12 September, 1983. P. 13-20.

4. Hartmann R. K., James G. Dictionary of lexicography. New York: Routledge, 1998. P. 49-54.

5. Zgusta L. Manual of lexicography. Prague: Academia, 1971. 356 p.

6. Atkins B. T., Rundell M. Oxford Guide of Practical Lexicography. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 540 p.

7. Piotrowski T. Problems in bilingual lexicography. Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, 1994. P. 235-267.

8. Mugdan J. On the Typology of Bilingual Dictionaries. Hyldgaard-Jensen, Karl and Arne Zettersten (Eds.). Symposium on Lexicography V. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Lexicography May 3-5, 1990 at the University of Copenhagen. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer, 1992. P. 17-24.

9. Marello C. The Bilingual Dictionary: Definition, History, bi-directionality. Lexicography: Critical Concepts. Vol. 2: Reference works across time, space, and languages. London: Routledge. Reinhard Rudolf Karl Hartmann (Ed.), 1999. P. 325-342.

10. Al-Kasimi A. Linguistics and bilingual dictionaries. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997. P.246-273.

11. Landau S. I. Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 496 p.

12. Roberts R. Dictionaries and Culture. Dictionary vision, research, and practice: Selected papers from the 12th International Symposium on Lexicography. Copenhagen, 2004. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, H. Gottlieb, J. E. Mogensen. P. 277-297.

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