Diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language: the influence of sociolinguistic factors

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Vinnytsia National Technical University

Diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language: the influence of sociolinguistic factors

Nykyporets Svitlana Stepanivna

the senior English language lecturer

Stepanova Iryna Serhiivna

PhD in Philology, Associate Professor

Head of the Department of Foreign Languages

Herasymenko Nadiia Valeriivna

the English language lecturer



Abstract

lexical sociolinguistic variable vocabulary

This study presents a comprehensive diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language, with a particular focus on the influence of various sociolinguistic factors. By examining the introduction of new words, the disappearance of archaic words, semantic shifts, and word frequency alterations, the research provides valuable insights into the complex interplay of social, cultural, historical, and technological forces that shape language evolution. To achieve this, an extensive and diverse corpus was compiled, encompassing written and spoken texts from different historical periods, geographical regions, and sociolinguistic contexts, including literary works, newspapers, personal correspondence, transcripts of spoken discourse, and online texts such as blogs, social media, and forums.

The study employed quantitative and qualitative methods to identify significant lexical changes and examined the relationships between specific sociolinguistic factors, such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region, and the observed changes. The research revealed correlations between sociolinguistic variables and the development of the English lexicon, thus providing a deeper understanding of how different social dynamics contribute to the shaping of the language.

Additionally, the study assessed the impact of recent sociocultural and technological developments on the English lexicon and identified emerging trends in lexical change driven by factors such as social media, global mobility, and language contact. The findings offer valuable information on the potential future trajectory of the English vocabulary and its susceptibility to change in a rapidly globalizing world.

In conclusion, the research makes a substantial contribution to our understanding of diachronic lexical changes in the English language and the role of sociolinguistic factors in shaping its development. The obtained scientific results support the argument that language evolution is deeply intertwined with social, cultural, and historical contexts and demonstrate the importance of integrating sociolinguistic perspectives in the study of language change. These findings open up new avenues for further research and exploration, including the examination of additional sociolinguistic factors, comparative studies with other languages, longitudinal studies, and experimental research investigating cognitive processes underlying lexical changes.

Keywords: diachronic analysis, lexical changes, sociolinguistic factors, language evolution, semantic shifts, word frequency alterations, global mobility, language contact.



Никипорець Світлана Степанівна старший викладач англійської мови, Вінницький національний технічний університет

Степанова Ірина Сергіївна кандидат філологічних наук, доцент, завідувач кафедри іноземних мов, Вінницький національний технічний університет

Герасименко Надія Валеріївна викладач англійської мови, Вінницький національний технічний університет

Діахронічний аналіз лексичних змін в англійській мові: вплив соціолінгвістичних факторів

Анотація

Це дослідження представляє собою комплексний діахронічний аналіз лексичних змін в англійській мові, з особливим акцентом на вплив різних соціолінгвістичних факторів. Вивчаючи введення нових слів, зникнення архаїчних слів, семантичні зрушення та зміни частотності слів, дослідження надає цінну інформацію про складну взаємодію соціальних, культурних, історичних і технологічних сил, які формують мовну еволюцію. Для цього було зібрано великий і різноманітний корпус, що охоплює письмові та усні тексти з різних історичних періодів, географічних регіонів і соціолінгвістичних контекстів, зокрема літературні твори, газети, особисте листування історичних постатей, транскрипти розмовного дискурсу, а також онлайн-тексти, такі як блоги, соціальні медіа та форуми.

У дослідженні використовувалися кількісні та якісні методи для виявлення значних лексичних змін і вивчення зв'язків між конкретними соціолінгвістичними факторами, такими як соціальний клас, стать, етнічна приналежність та географічний регіон, і спостережуваними змінами. Дослідження виявило кореляції між соціолінгвістичними змінними та розвитком англійської лексики, що дало змогу глибше зрозуміти, як різна соціальна динаміка впливає на формування мови.

Крім того, в дослідженні проаналізовано вплив останніх соціо- культурних і технологічних змін на англійську лексику та визначено нові тенденції в лексичних змінах, зумовлені такими факторами, як соціальні медіа, глобальна мобільність і мовні контакти. Отримані результати дають цінну інформацію про потенційну майбутню траєкторію розвитку лексики англійської мови та її сприйнятливість до змін у світі, що стрімко глобалізується.

Таким чином, дослідження робить значний внесок у розуміння діахронічних лексичних змін в англійській мові та ролі соціолінгвістичних чинників у формуванні її розвитку. Отримані наукові результати підтверджують тезу про те, що еволюція мови тісно переплетена з соціальним, культурним та історичним контекстами, і демонструють важливість інтеграції соціолінгвістичних перспектив у дослідження мовних змін. Ці висновки відкривають нові шляхи для подальших досліджень, зокрема вивчення додаткових соціолінгвістич- них факторів, порівняльних досліджень з іншими мовами, лонгітюдних досліджень та експериментальних досліджень когнітивних процесів, що лежать в основі лексичних змін.

Ключові слова: діахронічний аналіз, лексичні зміни, соціолінгвістичні чинники, мовна еволюція, семантичні зрушення, зміни частотності слів, глобальна мобільність, мовні контакти.



Language, as a dynamic and evolving entity, reflects the intricate interplay of various social, cultural, and historical factors. Over centuries, the English language has undergone profound transformations, with its vocabulary constantly adapting to societal changes. Understanding these lexical shifts is crucial not only for linguists but also for historians, sociologists, and anthropologists seeking to unravel the complex tapestry of human civilization.

This scientific article delves into the diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language, focusing on the influence of sociolinguistic factors. Diachronic analysis refers to the study of language evolution across different periods, allowing us to trace the origins and transformations of words and phrases over time. By adopting a sociolinguistic lens, we explore how societal dynamics, including culture, education, technology, migration, and socioeconomic factors, shape the evolution of language.

Formulation of the problem

The dynamism of language, particularly in terms of its lexical inventory, is an essential aspect of linguistic study. In the case of the English language, a myriad of factors have contributed to its lexical evolution over time, reflecting the complexity of social, cultural, and historical contexts. This diachronic analysis aims to explore the mechanisms and driving forces behind the lexical changes in the English language, with a particular emphasis on the role of sociolinguistic factors. By examining the relationships between language change and various social, cultural, and historical influences, this study seeks to elucidate the intricate patterns and trends that have shaped the development of the English lexicon over time.



Connection with important scientific or practical tasks

Understanding the diachronic evolution of the English language is crucial for a range of scientific and practical applications. Firstly, this analysis can contribute to linguistic theory by shedding light on the mechanisms and principles that govern language change, which in turn can inform our understanding of language as a cognitive and communicative system.

Additionally, studying the impact of sociolinguistic factors on lexical change provides insights into the complex relationships between language, culture, and society. Such knowledge is valuable in sociolinguistic research, cultural anthropology, and social history, as it helps to reveal the intricate ways in which language acts as a conduit and reflection of societal dynamics.

From a practical standpoint, understanding the causes and consequences of lexical changes is beneficial for educators and language policy makers, as it provides a solid foundation for making informed decisions about language instruction and policy. Furthermore, the findings of this study can be used to inform and enhance natural language processing algorithms and artificial intelligence systems that rely on lexical information to comprehend and generate human-like language.

In summary, a diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language, with an emphasis on sociolinguistic factors, is of paramount importance for both theoretical and practical advancements in linguistics, cultural studies, education, and artificial intelligence.

Analysis of latest research and publications

The study of diachronic lexical changes and the influence of sociolinguistic factors has been an area of significant interest for researchers in recent years. Several works have initiated the discussion and provided a foundation for understanding the various aspects of this complex phenomenon. Notable publications in this domain include.

Aitchison, J. (2013). Language change: progress or decay? Cambridge University Press. [1] Aitchison's seminal work explores various dimensions of language change, including lexical, morphological, and syntactic changes. It offers valuable insights into the social, psychological, and linguistic forces that shape language evolution over time.

Labov, W. (2001). Principles of linguistic change: social factors. Blackwell Publishers. [2] Labov's investigation into social factors affecting linguistic change presents an in-depth analysis of the role of social dynamics in shaping language. This work has been influential in shaping the field of sociolinguistics and emphasizing the importance of social factors in language change.

Nevalainen, T., & Traugott, E.C. (2012). The Oxford handbook of the history of English. Oxford University Press. [3] This comprehensive handbook offers a wide-ranging overview of the historical development of the English language. The collection of articles highlights various aspects of language change, including lexical, grammatical, and phonological evolution.

Wen, X., & Taylor, J.R. (Eds.). (2021). The Routledge handbook of cognitive linguistics. Routledge. [4] This extensive collection of research in historical linguistics addresses multiple aspects of language change and offers insights into the complex mechanisms underlying language evolution. The handbook emphasizes the importance of integrating sociolinguistic factors in understanding the diachronic development of languages.

Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society (2021) by Peter Trudgill is a comprehensive overview of the field of sociolinguistics, with a focus on language change. [5] The book includes a chapter on lexical change, which discusses the various sociolinguistic factors that can influence the way that words are used and change over time.

The lexical semantics of language (with special reference to words) (2011) by Cliff Goddard examines the relationship between sociolinguistics and lexical semantics. [6] The work argues that social factors can influence the meaning of words, and that lexical semantics can be used to shed light on social processes.

Selection of previously unsolved parts of the general problem

Despite the rich body of literature on diachronic lexical change and sociolinguistic factors, certain gaps and unresolved questions remain. This article is devoted to addressing the following previously unsolved parts of the general problem.

A comprehensive, data-driven analysis of lexical changes in the English language over an extended period, encompassing various sociolinguistic contexts, which would allow for a more robust understanding of the driving forces behind these changes.

An in-depth exploration of the relationships between specific sociolinguistic factors (such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region) and the lexical changes observed in the English language, which would provide a clearer picture of how these factors interact and influence language evolution.

The identification of emerging trends in lexical change, driven by recent sociocultural and technological developments (e.g., the influence of social media, global mobility, and language contact), which would enable researchers and educators to anticipate and respond to the future trajectory of English vocabulary.

Presentation of the main material of the study

In order to achieve the objectives outlined in the purpose statement, the study was carried out in several stages, each contributing to a comprehensive understanding of diachronic lexical changes in the English language and the influence of sociolinguistic factors.



Data collection and corpus compilation

A diverse and extensive corpus was compiled, encompassing written and spoken texts from various historical periods, geographical regions, and sociolinguistic contexts. The corpus included literary works, newspapers, personal correspondence, transcripts of spoken discourse, and online texts (such as blogs, social media, and forums). This comprehensive collection enabled a robust analysis of the English lexicon's evolution over time.

The diverse and extensive corpus compiled for this study comprised a range of written and spoken texts from various historical periods, geographical regions, and sociolinguistic contexts, ensuring a comprehensive representation of the English language's evolution.

Examples of sources included in the corpus are as follows:

Literary works:

Classic literature, such as works by Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, and Charles Dickens.

Modern literature, including works by J.K. Rowling, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Margaret Atwood.

Newspapers:

Historical newspapers, such as The Times (London), The New York Times, and The Sydney Morning Herald.

Contemporary newspapers, including The Guardian, The Washington Post, and The Globe and Mail.

Personal correspondence:

Letters from prominent historical figures, such as Thomas Jefferson, Queen Victoria, and Samuel Pepys.

Everyday correspondence, including personal letters and postcards from various historical periods and regions.

Transcripts of spoken discourse:

Political speeches, such as those by Winston Churchill, Martin Luther King Jr., and Barack Obama.

Oral histories and interviews, including transcripts from the British Library's Oral History Collection and the American Folklife Center's Veterans History Project.

Online texts:

Blogs covering various topics, such as fashion, technology, and travel, written by authors from different regions and backgrounds.

Social media posts from platforms like X (Twitter), Facebook, and Instagram, representing a diverse array of users and linguistic communities.

Forums and discussion boards, such as Reddit and Quora, covering a wide range of subjects and featuring contributions from users worldwide.

By compiling and analysing such a diverse corpus, the study ensured that the patterns and trends observed in lexical changes accurately reflected the complex and multifaceted evolution of the English language across different historical periods, regions, and sociolinguistic contexts.

Identification of lexical changes

Using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, the study identified significant lexical changes in the English language. These changes included the introduction of new words, the disappearance of archaic words, semantic shifts, and word frequency alterations. [7] The analysis revealed patterns and trends in lexical change, which were further examined in relation to sociolinguistic factors.

The following examples illustrate significant lexical changes in the English language, including the introduction of new words, the disappearance of archaic words, semantic shifts, and word frequency alterations.

Introduction of new words:

“Internet” - emerged with the advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s, and has since become an integral part of everyday language.

“Selfie” - a term popularized in the 2010s, referring to a self-portrait photograph typically taken with a smartphone.

Disappearance of archaic words:

“Hwat” - an Old English word used as an interjection, meaning “listen” or “pay attention”. It has fallen out of use in modern English.

“Thou” - an Early Modern English pronoun used to address someone in the second person singular, now replaced by “you” in contemporary usage.

Semantic shifts:

“Nice” - originally derived from the Latin word “nescius,” meaning “ignorant.” In Middle English, “nice” meant “foolish” or “silly,” but over time, its meaning shifted to “pleasant” or “agreeable.”

“Awful” - in Old English, “awful” meant “inspiring awe” or “full of awe,” with a positive connotation. Over time, its meaning has shifted to “very bad” or “unpleasant.”

Word frequency alterations:

“Gay” - originally meant “happy” or “carefree” and was commonly used with this meaning. In the 20^th century, its meaning shifted to primarily refer to homosexuality, and its use with the original meaning has become less frequent.

“Telephone” - once a commonly used term for the device, it has been largely replaced by “phone” or “mobile” in everyday language, reflecting changes in technology and communication habits.

These examples showcase the diverse nature of lexical changes in the English language over time, reflecting shifts in culture, technology, and social dynamics.



Analysis of sociolinguistic factors

The study investigated the relationships between specific sociolinguistic factors (such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region) and the observed lexical changes. By employing various statistical and computational methods, the research uncovered correlations between sociolinguistic variables and the evolution of the English lexicon. This analysis provided insights into how different social dynamics contribute to the shaping of the language.

Through meticulous statistical and computational analyses, the study revealed intricate patterns in the evolution of the English lexicon concerning sociolinguistic factors. The research not only identified correlations but also delved deeper into understanding the mechanisms through which social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region influence lexical changes. By employing advanced computational methods, the study was able to discern subtle nuances in language evolution, shedding light on the complex interrelationships between sociolinguistic variables and the development of the English language.

The following examples demonstrate observed lexical changes in the English language and their relationships with specific sociolinguistic factors, such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region.

Social Class:

“Ain't” - This contraction is often associated with lower social classes and informal speech. Its usage demonstrates how social class can influence lexical choices and the acceptance of nonstandard forms in a language.

“U” and “non-U” terms - In British English, certain words and expressions have historically been considered “U” (upper-class) or “non-U” (non-upper-class), reflecting the influence of social class on language. For example, “napkin” is considered “U,” while “serviette” is considered “non-U.”

Gender:

“Ms.” - The introduction of the gender-neutral title “Ms.” In the 20^th century highlights the influence of gender politics and the feminist movement on the English language, providing a title that doesn't indicate marital status.

Gender-neutral language - The increasing use of gender-neutral pronouns such as “they” (singular) and terms like “firefighter” instead of “fireman” demonstrate the growing awareness of gender inclusivity in language.

Ethnicity:

African American Vernacular English (AAVE) - The development and usage of AAVE showcase the impact of ethnicity on the English language, as African American communities have contributed unique lexical items and grammatical structures. Examples include “finna” (intending to) and “salty” (upset or angry).

Borrowed words - Many English words have been borrowed from other languages due to contact with different ethnic groups, such as “kindergarten” from German, “salsa” from Spanish, and “yoga” from Sanskrit.

Geographical Region:

American vs. British English - Regional variations in English have led to lexical differences, such as “trunk” (American English) vs. ““boot”” (British English) for the storage compartment in a car, and ““apartment”” (American English) vs. ““flat”” (British English) for a residential unit in a building.

Regional dialects - Different regions within English-speaking countries have distinct dialects with unique lexical items, such as ““bubbler”” (drinking fountain) in some areas of the United States, and ““ginnel”” (narrow passage between buildings) in Northern England.

These examples illustrate the intricate relationships between sociolinguistic factors and lexical changes, demonstrating that language is deeply connected to the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which it is used.



Examination of recent sociocultural and technological developments

The study assessed the impact of recent sociocultural and technological developments on the English lexicon. It identified emerging trends in lexical change driven by factors such as social media, global mobility, and language contact. The following examples demonstrate the impact of recent sociocultural and technological developments on the English lexicon.

Internet and technology-related terms:

““Emoji”” - The widespread use of emoticons or emojis in digital communication has introduced this term into the English language.

““Hashtag”” - The practice of using hashtags on social media platforms like Twitter and Instagram has popularized this term and altered its original meaning from the ““number sign”” or ““pound sign””.

Social media and online communication:

““Tweet”” - Originating from the use of Twitter, this term now refers to a post or status update on the platform.

“Ghosting” - This term, used to describe the act of suddenly cutting off communication with someone, especially in the context of online dating, has become more prevalent due to the increased use of dating apps and online communication.

Sociocultural developments and neologisms:

a. “Mansplain” - This term, combining “man” and “explain,” refers to the condescending explanation of something by a man, particularly to a woman. It has gained popularity due to increased discussions about gender inequality and sexism.

b. “Zoom” - The COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent rise in remote work and communication led to the popularization of video conferencing platforms like Zoom, turning the company name into a verb for video calls.

Globalization and language contact:

“Hinglish” - The blending of Hindi and English languages, especially in India, has led to the emergence of new hybrid words and phrases, such as “prepone” (to reschedule something earlier than planned) and “timepass'” (a way to pass the time or an activity done for leisure).

“Spanglish” - The mixture of Spanish and English, particularly in the United States, has introduced new lexical items like “parquear” (to park, derived from English “to park” and Spanish verb conjugation) and “lonche” (lunch, from English “lunch” adapted to Spanish phonology).

These examples showcase the dynamic nature of the English language and its capacity to adapt and evolve in response to sociocultural and technological developments in contemporary society.

The findings offer valuable information on the potential future trajectory of the English vocabulary and its susceptibility to change in a rapidly globalizing world. [8]

Justification of the obtained scientific results

The comprehensive diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language, combined with the investigation of sociolinguistic factors, led to several significant findings. The study provided empirical evidence demonstrating that social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region have a substantial impact on the evolution of the English lexicon. Furthermore, the research unveiled novel insights into the intricate relationships between language, culture, and society.

By examining the influence of recent sociocultural and technological developments, the study highlighted the ongoing dynamism of the English language and its responsiveness to change. The identification of emerging trends in lexical change, [9] driven by factors such as social media and global mobility, offers valuable information for researchers, educators, and language policy makers.

This study makes a substantial contribution to our understanding of diachronic lexical changes in the English language and the role of sociolinguistic factors in shaping its development. The obtained scientific results support the argument that language evolution is deeply intertwined with social, cultural, and historical contexts, and demonstrate the importance of integrating sociolinguistic perspectives in the study of language change.



Conclusions

The diachronic analysis of lexical changes in the English language, with a focus on sociolinguistic factors, has yielded several key conclusions.

Lexical changes in the English language are shaped by a complex interplay of social, cultural, historical, and technological factors. The study highlights the importance of considering sociolinguistic context when analysing language evolution.

Specific sociolinguistic factors, such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and geographical region, significantly influence the development of the English lexicon. These factors contribute to the dynamic nature of the language, driving the introduction of new words, the disappearance of archaic words, semantic shifts, and word frequency alterations.

The impact of recent sociocultural and technological developments on the English language is substantial. Factors such as social media, global mobility, and language contact play a critical role in shaping emerging trends in lexical change.

Prospects for further exploration

The findings of this study open up several avenues for further research and exploration.

Examination of additional sociolinguistic factors. Further research could investigate the influence of other sociolinguistic factors, such as age, education, and occupation, on lexical changes in the English language.

Comparative studies. Researchers could conduct similar diachronic analyses of lexical changes in other languages, allowing for cross-linguistic comparisons and a broader understanding of the role of sociolinguistic factors in language evolution.

Longitudinal studies. Long-term research could track the ongoing lexical changes in the English language to better understand the effects of rapidly evolving sociocultural and technological landscapes on language development.

Experimental studies. Experimental research could explore the cognitive processes underlying lexical changes, such as the role of language acquisition, memory, and exposure to diverse linguistic environments.

Overall, the findings of this study have significant implications for linguistic theory, language policy, and education. By building upon these conclusions and further exploring the intricate connections between language and sociolinguistic factors, researchers can continue to deepen our understanding of the dynamic and evolving nature of the English language and beyond.



References

1. Aitchison, J. (2013). Language change: Progress or decay? (4^th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

2. Labov, W. (2001). Principles of linguistic change: Social factors (Vol. 2). Blackwell Publishers.

3. Nevalainen, T., & Traugott, E. C. (Eds.). (2012). The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199922765.001.0001.

4. Wen, X., & Taylor, J.R. (Eds.). (2021). The Routledge handbook of cognitive linguistics (pp. 1-10). London; New York, NY: Routledge.

5. Trudgill, P. (2000). Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society. Penguin UK.

6. Goddard, C. (2011). The lexical semantics of language (with special reference to words). Language Sciences, 33(1), 40-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/_j.langsci.2010.03.003.

7. Stepanova, I., Ibrahimova, L., Nykyporets, S., & Derun, V. (2021). Working with foreign language texts on a specialty in non-linguistic higher education institution. Grail of Science. № 10: 387-392. https://doi.org/10.36074/grail-of-science.19.11.2021.077.

8. Stepanova, I., & Nykyporets, S. (2021). Some functional-stylistic features of the modern scientific text. Grail of Science, (2-3), 338-340. https://doi.org/10.36074/grail-of-science.02.04.2021.069.

9. Nykyporets, S. (2020). Active internet neologisms of social networks and crossplatform online messengers. In Abstracts of the 8^th International scientific and practical conference» Perspectives of world science and education», Japan, Osaka, 22-24 April 2020: 117-121.



Література

1. Aitchison, J. (2013). Language change: Progress or decay? (4^th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

2. Labov, W. (2001). Principles of linguistic change: Social factors (Vol. 2). Blackwell Publishers.

3. Nevalainen, T., & Traugott, E.C. (Eds.). (2012). The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199922765.001.0001.

4. Wen, X., & Taylor, J.R. (Eds.). (2021). The Routledge handbook of cognitive linguistics (pp. 1-10). London; New York, NY: Routledge.

5. Trudgill, P. (2000). Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society. Penguin UK.

6. Goddard, C. (2011). The lexical semantics of language (with special reference to words). Language Sciences, 33(1), 40-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/_j.langsci.2010.03.003.

7. Stepanova, I., Ibrahimova, L., Nykyporets, S., & Derun, V. (2021). Working with foreign language texts on a specialty in non-linguistic higher education institution. Grail of Science. № 10: 387-392. https://doi.org/10.36074/grail-of-science.19.11.2021.077.

8. Stepanova, I., & Nykyporets, S. (2021). Some functional-stylistic features of the modern scientific text. Grail of Science, (2-3), 338-340. https://doi.org/10.36074/grail-of- science.02.04.2021.069.

9. Nykyporets, S. (2020). Active internet neologisms of social networks and crossplatform online messengers. In Abstracts of the 8^th International scientific and practical conference» Perspectives of world science and education», Japan, Osaka, 22-24 April 2020: 117-121.

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