The types and functions of lexico – grammatical parallelism in the political speeches of presidents of the USA and Ukraine

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Khmelnytskyi National University

Department of Germanic Philology and Translation Studies

The types and functions of lexico - grammatical parallelism in the political speeches of presidents of the USA and Ukraine

Yemets Oleksandr Vasylyovych Candidate of science (Ph.D) in Philology, Professor

Khmelnytskyi

Abstract

The article considers the types and functions of parallel structures in the political discourse. The use of grammar forms in lexico- grammatical parallelism is investigated on the basis of the speeches of the American Presidents John Kennedy and Joseph Biden as well as the Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyi. Parallelism is defined as repetition of syntactic structure in two or more adjacent sentences. The term "lexico- grammatical parallelism" means that the repeated part of the sentence model consists of both word repetition and the grammatical (syntactic) repetition (G. Leech). In the four analyzed speeches, 66 examples of parallel structures were examined. Only 22 structures are based on complete parallelism, while 44 sentences involve partial parallelism with some variations in the structure. The main grammar forms used in the parallel structures are modal verbs (12 sentences), the forms of the Present Continuous Tense (15 utterances) and imperative sentences. In the speech of John Kennedy the most common form is imperative sentences, the semantics of which involves the appeal to the American nation, to the countries with different socio-political system to unite, to jointly resolve crucial global problems. The two recent speeches by Joseph Biden contain mainly the forms of modal verbs (10 sentences) which render the decisiveness to solve global problems of peace and climate change, to stop Putin's aggression, and to support Ukraine and Israel. The semantic functions of the Present Continuous Tense forms in the speeches of Presidents Biden and Zelenskyi consist in stressing the importance of the current actions in the solution of the global issues and condemning the policy of Putin's Russia for weaponizing energy, grain and children's future. A distinctive feature of John Kennedy's speech is the use of reverse parallelism, and Joseph Biden's speeches include frame repetitions which foreground the main ideas and the importance of joint efforts to fight aggression.

Keywords: lexico-grammatical parallelism, anaphora, frame repetition, modal verbs, imperative sentences, semantic function, global issues.

Анотація

Ємець Олександр Васильович кандидат філологічних наук, професор кафедри германської філології та перекладознавства, Хмельницький національний університет, м. Хмельницький

ТИПИ ТА ФУНКЦІЇ ЛЕКСИКО-ГРАМАТИЧНОГО ПАРАЛЕЛІЗМУ У ПОЛІТИЧНИХ ПРОМОВАХ ПРЕЗИДЕНТІВ США І УКРАЇНИ

У статті розглядаються типи та функції паралельних структур у політичному дискурсі. Досліджується використання граматичних форм у лексико-граматичному паралелізмі на матеріалі промов американських президентів Джона Кеннеді та Джозефа Байдена і українського президента Володимира Зеленського. Паралелізм визначається як повтор двох або більше суміжних речень. Термин "лексико- граматичний паралелізм" означає, що повторювана частина моделі речення складається як з повтору слова, так і граматичного ( синтаксичного) повтору (Дж. Ліч).У чотирьох аналізованих промовах розглянуто 66 прикладів паралельних структур. Лише 22 структури базуються на повному паралелізмі, у той час як 44 речення включають частковий паралелізм з деякими змінами у структурі. Основні граматичні форми у паралельних конструкціях - це модальні дієслова (12 речень), форми Present Continuous Tense (15 висловлювань) та наказові речення. У промові Джона Кеннеді найпоширенішою формою є наказові речення, семантика яких включає звернення до американського народу, до країн з різними соціально-політичними системами єднатися, спільно вирішувати важливі глобальні проблеми. Дві нещодавні промови Джозефа Байдена містять в основному форми модальних дієслів як частин паралельних структур (10 речень), які передають рішучість вирішити глобальні проблеми миру і кліматичних змін, зупинити путінську агресію та підтримати Україну та Ізраїль. Семантичні функції форм Present Continuous у промовах Президентів Байдена і Зеленського полягають у визначенні важливості поточних дій щодо вирішення глобальних проблем і засудження політики путінської Росії за перетворення на зброю енергії, зерна та долі дітей. Характерна риса промови Джона Кеннеді - це використання зворотного паралелізму, а промови Джозефа Байдена включають рамкові повтори, які підкрес- люють основні ідеї та важливість спільних зусиль у боротьбі з агресією.

Ключові слова: лексико-граматичний паралелізм, анафора, рамковий повтор, модальні дієслова, наказові речення, семантична функція, глобальні проблеми.

Formulation of the problem

The traditional classification of syntactical expressive means includes three major groups of these devices. The first group is based on the violation of the fixed word order in the English sentence (inversion). The second group involves expressive means based on the redundancy (or expansion) of the sentence model (which means different types of repetitions). And the third group contains such expressive means which are based on the reduction of the sentence model, i.e. omission of some parts of the sentence (nominative and elliptical sentences, asyndeton, aposiopesis) [5, p. 92-94]. The main criterion of such classification is the transformation of the basic sentence model: subject - predicate - object. All transformations of this basic model are referred to as syntactical expressive means and syntactical stylistic devices [5;7], or syntactical stylistic figures [1].

Syntactical devices are considered separately from syntactical expressive means because they involve interaction of several sentences or clauses in supra-phrasal units and paragraphs. Parallel constructions, syntactical anaphora and epiphora are included in the group of syntactical devices [5, p. 92-93]. However, such division does not seem to be very consistent because the majority of syntactical repetitions, e.g. catch repetition, polysyndeton, are realized in many cases in the framework of several sentences, to say nothing of frame repetitions which can function in the framework of the whole text. In this article we consider parallel constructions as syntactical expressive means based on the repetitions of sentence structure in two or more sentences [7, p. 136].

Parallelism as a stylistic device is traditionally associated with poetry and political discourse, in particular political speeches. So it has been investigated from the viewpoint of its pragmatic effect. At the same time, the grammatical components of parallel constructions have not been considered in details. Therefore, the novelty of this article lies in the analysis of grammatical components of parallel constructions and their semantics.

Analysis of the recent researches

Most scientists investigate parallelism as a manifestation of expressive syntax. Expressive syntax is understood as the property of language units to enhance the emotional effect of the text, to increase its informativeness [2, p. 161-162]. The works by V. A. Chabanenko and N. V. Guivanyuk (2009) deal with the units of expressive syntax in the Ukrainian literary texts. The profound paper by O. M. Torosyan (2015) analyzes the pragmatic potential of expressive syntax. L. V. Soga (2021) characterizes stylistic devices of syntax. A recent article by I. V. Baran (2023) considers expressive syntax in its traditional sphere - in poetry.

A somewhat different and wider approach to parallelism is suggested by such well-known stylistician as Geoffrey Leech (2010). G. Leech, together with Mick Short, considers parallelism as a type of foregrounding [3], a basic stylistic device of attracting the reader's (listener's) attention. In our monograph [6] we agree with ideas of Geoffrey Leech and investigate the role of syntactical parallelism in creating prose poeticalness. In poetical prose, parallel structures not only increase the emotional effect, they can also be an important component of stylistic convergence when it is combined with tropes and alliterations.

The objective of this paper consists in determining the types of grammar components in parallel constructions, their semantic functions in the political discourse, namely in the speeches of the American Presidents and the President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyi. The methods used in the research include the method of contextual analysis with the aim of defining the meanings of lexical units which are parts of parallel constructions, the method of stylistic analysis for characterizing the types and functions of syntactical repetitions, the descriptive method, and the elements of quantitative method.

Statement of the basic material

According to the similarity of the mophological units in the parallel constructions, we can distinguish between complete parallelism and partial parallelism. Complete parallelism is observed when all structural units are identical [7, p. 136]: What became of the woman? She wondered as she rocked. What became of the woman without any lips? She wondered (D. Thomas). This type of parallelism is typical for poetry: I dare not ask a kiss, // I dare not beg a smile (R. Herrick). Partial parallelism involves some difference in grammar forms: He knows nothing, and he thinks he knows everything (G. B. Shaw). Another, very interesting type of parallelism is chiasmus, or reversed parallelism. Reversed parallelism envisages the use of two sentences, the second of which has such order of words that is reverse (inverted) to the first one: Follow love and it will flee; flee love and it will follow you (proverb). This structure is often used for humorous purposes, but can be seen in publicist texts as in a well-known phrase by John Kennedy about America. grammatical lexical modal verb

Some scientists suggest that traditional parallelism realized in two or more sentences should be called macroparallelism, while microparallelism occurs in the framework of one sentence: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each window curtain (E. Poe). However, this type of repetition involves the use of homogenous parts of one sentence and is called enumeration. Despite some objections, the idea of such unity in the sentence is fruitful.

As a rule, parallelism is combined with syntactical anaphora and epiphora. Anaphora, the repetition of initial words in two or more sentences, presupposes similar structure of several clauses which is evident in a very emotional speech of the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill during the Second World War: We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills, we shall never surrender.

I. M. Kochan characterizes such syntactical stylistic units as "figures of accumulation" because they are employed for increasing the emotional effect [1, p. 344-345].

Mick Short, one of the most well-known stylisticians of our time, singles out one of the basic functions of parallelism: "When readers come across parallel structures they try to find an appropriate semantic relationship between the parallel parts. This is often the relation of quasi-synonymy or quasi-antonymy, but other relations are also possible" [4, p. 67]. In such way Short formulates the parallelism rule, which means the creation of semantic unity between the structures. In this research we will make use of the approach to parallel structures formulated by Geoffrey Leech in the term lexico-grammatical parallelism, which means "that the repetitive part of the model consists of both word repetition and grammatical (syntactic) repetition" [3, p. 22 ].

The algorithm of our analysis of lexico-grammatical parallelism included the following stages. Firstly, we selected the sentences with parallel structures; secondly, we determined the grammar forms of the componenets in these structures; thirdly, we characterized the semantic functions of the parallel structures. The investigation included the inaugural speech of John Kennedy on January 20th, 1961, the speech of our President Volodymyr Zelenskyi and the American President Joseph Biden at the United Nations General Assembly on September 19th, 2023, and Joseph Biden's Address to the nation on Israel-Hamas and Russia-Ukraine Wars delivered on October 19th, 2023.

One of the most widely used grammar forms are modal verbs, in particular the verb can, beginning with the famous phrase by John Kennedy: And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country [8, p. 17]. This phrase has become an aphorism, it is a classical example of reverse parallelism. The next utterance contains partial parallelism with two different verbs will and can, but with similar and even wider semantics of not only national, but also global freedom and prosperity: My fellow citizens of the world, ask not what America can do for you; ask what we can do for the freedom of man. In other parts of his speech President Kennedy makes use of the modal verb can to stress the ability of achieving positive results and changes. A special type of foregrounding is the application of antithesis as a part of anaphoric repetition, both of affirmative and negative forms of this modal verb and the use of antonymic participles: United, there is little we cannot do in a host of co- operative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do, for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder [8, p. 16]. In such structures, the idea of unity has greater emphasis.

In both Biden's speeches modal verbs can, must, have to, need are components of parallel structures. In his speech at the United Nations General Assembly (we will call it the first speech) the American President speaks about the tasks facing the global community using the modal verb have to: We have to bring in more leadership and capability that exists everywhere. We have to grapple with the challenges that are more connected and more complex. And we have to make sure we are delivering for people everywhere, not just somewhere [10]. It is interesting to note that, as distinct from Kennedy's speech, the second speech by Joseph Biden on Hamas-Israel and Russia-Ukraine wars contains the modal verb can in the negative form meaning emotional decisiveness and in this function it is semantically close to must: As I said in Israel, as hard as it is, we cannot give up on peace. We cannot give up on a two-state solution. [...] We can't stand by and stand silent when this happens. We must without equivocation denounce antisemitism. We must also without equivocation denounce Islamophobia [9].

The tense forms of predicates in the lexico-grammatical parallel constructions play an important role in the semantics of these structures. The use of Present Continuous Tense reveals the actions taking place at the present moment, but their repetitions in the position of syntactic anaphora emphasizes the importance of these actions. President Volodymyr Zelenskyi in his speech makes use of the verb weaponize in the initial position to condemn the dangerous policy of the Russian authorities: The aggressor is weaponizing many other things. Kremlin weaponized oil and gas to weaken the leaders of other countries. Russia is weaponizing nuclear energy. Is there any sense of reducing nuclear energy when Russia is weaponizing nuclear power plants? [11]

In the same negative context President Biden describes the policy of Iran as a supporter of terrorism: Iran is supporting Russia in Ukraine, and it's supporting Hamas and other terrorist groups in the region [9]. In other contexts the use of Present Continuous forms in the speech by Volodymyr Zelenskyi and the first speech by Joseph Biden reveals the activities of the governments of these countries, of the nations to achieve important aims in food stability (Ukraine), in global security, in the solution of the ecological issues (the USA): Even now when Russia has undermined the Black Sea Grain Initiative we are working to ensure food stability. And we are working hard to preserve the land routes for grain exports [11]. The American President characterized different directions of current cooperation with other countries and their leaders - from artificial intelligence to climate changes, that is why this grammar form can be found in 10 sentences with the verbs work and commit: And we are working to show how democracy can deliver in ways that matter to people's lives [10].

Imperative sentences as components of lexico-grammatical parallel structures are present in the speeches of John Kennedy more often than in the speeches of both current presidents of Ukraine and the USA. Their semantics contains the appeal for joint work, joint solution of crucial issues. Such sentences conclude the speeches of both presidents: Let's do this work together. Let's deliver progress for everyone. Let's bend the arc of history for the good of the world because it's within our power to do it (Joseph Biden); Let unity decide everything openly (Volodymyr Zelenskyi).

Using the abovementioned term "figures of accumulation" by I. M. Kochan concerning the lexical components of the initial part, we can state the presence of the original metaphor bend the arc of history in the third sentence which makes the utterance more foregrounded. In the speech of Jonh Kennedy imperative sentences in parallel structures are used 12 times, including the anaphoric let and the quoted ask not. In these sentences President Kennedy appealed to the countries with different socio-political systems to unite, to jointly solve the issues of arms control, scientific progress, and to oppose aggression: Let both sides explore what problems unite instead of what belaboring those problems which divide us. Let both sides, for the first time, formulate [...]. Let both sides unite [...] [8]. As we can see, the majority of parallel constructions include anaphora which helps to produce a stronger emotional effect.

Conditional sentences are present in the second speech of President Biden on Israel-Hamas and Russia-Ukraine wars, but they are not numerous. There are 4 such sentences in parallel constructions, and their semantics and pragmatics involve the promise to support Ukraine and Israel because such support is the part of American values and American alliances: American values are what makes us a partner that other nations want to work with. To put all that at risk if we walk away from Ukraine, if we turn our backs on Israel, it is just not worth it. Another pair of parallel construction contains an explicit warning to Putin and his aggression: So if we don't stop Putin's appetite for power and control in Ukraine, he won't limit himself just to Ukraine. And if Putin attacks a NATO ally, we will defend every inch of NATO, which a treaty requires and calls for [9].

A peculiar feature of Presiden Biden's speeches analyzed in our research is the use of frame repetition with the words inflection point: My fellow leaders, we gather once more at an inflection point in world history with the eyes of the world upon all of you - all of us. - My fellow leaders, let me close with this. At this inflection point in history, we are going to be judged [10]. Biden pronounces these words at the beginning and at the end of his speech at the UN General Assembly, thus emphasizing the importance of the moment. It is interesting to note that Joseph Biden begins his second speech with the same words: We are facing an inflection point in history. So, this phrase can be regarded a feature of his oratorical style.

Conclusions

All in all, 66 sentences with parallel structures from the speeches of the American Presidents John Kennedy and Joseph Biden, the Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyi have been analyzed. 44 sentences contain partial parallelism and only 22 sentences are based on complete parallelism with anaphoras. The major grammar forms used in lexico- grammatical parallelism (G. Leech) include the Present Continuous Tense (15 examples), modal verbs such as can, must, have to (12 sentences), imperative sentences with the verb let (12 utterances). The reverse parallel structures are used in John Kennedy's speech as an appeal to joint efforts of all nations, of all Americans. This stylistic device is rather popular today among the Ukrainian politicians. The Present Continuous forms prevail in the speech by President Zelenskyi and in the second speech by President Biden. With the help of these forms both political leaders stress the importance of current actions and the joint solution of global issues. The use of modal verbs, most often can in negative forms, in Joseph Biden's speeches emphasizes the warning to the aggressor, the persistance of the democratic countries to support Ukraine, to keep to their values. The main pragmatic functions of parallel structures in these 4 speeches include emphasizing and foregrounding the basic global issues of peace and resistance to the aggression. The prospect of further research involves the analysis of other syntactical devices in the present-day political discourse.

References

1. Kochan I. M. Lingvistychnyi analiz nekstu: Navch. posibnyk. K.: Znannya, 2008. 423 s.

2. Torosyan O. M. Ekspresyvnyi syntaksys suchasnoi angliyskoi movy. Naukovyi visnyk DDPU. Seriya "Filologichni nauky". № 4. 2015. S. 161-166.

3. Leech G. Analysing Literature through Language: Two Shakespearean Speeches. Language and Style. In Honour of Mick Short. London : Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. P. 15-31.

4. Short M. Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1996. 400 p.

5. Valihura O. R., Boretska O. Yu. A Guide to English Stylistics. Тернопіль: Лібра Терра, 2009. 200 с.

6. Yemets A. Investigating Poeticalness of Prose. Saarbrucken : LAP Lambert Publishing, 2012. 69 p.

7. Zhukovska V.V. English Stylistics: Fundamentals of Theory and Practice.

Житомир : Вид.-во ЖДУ ім. І. Франка, 2010. 240 с.

Sources of illustrative material

8. Kennedy J. F. Inagural Address. January 20, 1961. Text Interpretation and Translation / O. V. Yemets. Хмельницький: ХНУ, 2007. С. 16-19.

9. President Biden Addresses the Nation. October 19, 2023.

10. President Biden Addresses the 78 Session of the United Nations General Assembly. September 19, 2023.

11. The speech of President Zelenskyi to the United Nations General

Література

1. Кочан І. М. Лінгвістичний аналіз тексту: Навч. посібник. К.: Знання, 2008. 423 с.

2. Торосян О. М. Експресивний синтаксис сучасної англійської мови. Науковий вісник ДДПУ. Серія " Філологічні науки ". № 4. 2015. С. 161-166.

3. Leech G. Analysing Literature through Language: Two Shakespearean Speeches. Language and Style. In Honour of Mick Short. London : Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. P. 15-31.

4. Short M. Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1996. 400 p.

5. Valihura O. R., Boretska O. Yu. A Guide to English Stylistics. Тернопіль: Лібра Терра, 2009. 200 с.

6. Yemets A. Investigating Poeticalness of Prose. Saarbrucken: LAP Lambert Publishing, 2012. 69 p.

7. Zhukovska V.V. English Stylistics: Fundamentals of Theory and Practice.

Житомир: Вид.-во ЖДУ ім. І. Франка, 2010. 240 p.

Джерела ілюстративного матеріалу

8. Kennedy J. F. Inagural Address. January 20, 1961. Text Interpretation and Translation / O. V. Yemets. Хмельницький: ХНУ, 2007. P. 16-19.

9. President Biden Addresses the Nation. October 19, 2023.

10. President Biden Addresses the 78 Session of the United Nations General Assembly. September 19, 2023.

11. The speech of President Zelenskyi to the United Nations General

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