Characteristic features of euphemisms and disphemisms

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Eurasia University

Characteristic features of euphemisms and disphemisms

Abstract

Key words: euphemism, dysphemism, media, dominant, society.

Introduction

Both euphemisms and dysphemisms are tools used to replace words or expressions given to convey a certain meaning, either slightly or completely altering them. While euphemisms aim to soften a conveyed idea, dysphemisms, conversely, are harsh, serious, or sharp in meaning. Euphemisms and dysphemisms may differ in structure, but they share certain common aspects.

Degree of research. Euphemisms and dysphemisms have been explored by various linguistic scholars in both Azerbaijani and global linguistics. Pioneering researchers in this field include James Frazer,

D.K. Zelenin, and S. Freud. Sigmund Freud extensively explained the translation oftaboo from a psychoanalytical perspective in his book "Totem and Taboo".

Purpose and objectives: In our research, our main goal is to analyze the structural-semantic features and pragmatic-stylistic functions of both euphemisms and dysphemisms in the contemporary English and Azerbaijani language media discourse. To achieve this goal, we have set the following objectives:

- Determine the main purposes of the concepts of "euphemy" and "dysphemy" in modern linguistics.

- Examine the research on euphemisms and dysphe- misms in both Turkology and Azerbaijani linguistics.

Methods. In pursuit of the predetermined objectives, diverse interactive and informative methodologies were employed to scrutinize our research, dissecting media discourse as a linguistic research entity through various linguistic methodologies. The principal focus was on elucidating the structural, lexical, and stylistic potential of euphemistic and dysphemis- tic elements within media discourse.

1. Euphemisms' Characteristic Features

* Lexical substitution: Euphemistic strategies encompass the replacement of a more severe term with a milder or more discreet alternative. For example, adopting the phrase "terminated from employment" in lieu of the more direct term "fired".

• Utilization of metaphorical idioms: Euphemistic expressions frequently leverage metaphors to obliquely convey a genuine meaning. Illustratively, characterizing someone's grave illness as "engaged in a life struggle".

• Deployment of generalizing vocabulary for the function of abstraction: Euphemistic devices often utilize more generalized language to mitigate the specificity of harsh facets within a discourse. For instance, employing the term "infection" rather than specifying a particular malady.

2. Dysphemisms' Characteristic Features:

Intensification of a severe theme: Dysphemism entails the incorporation of more pointed lexemes to accentuate a stern or derogatory subject. For instance, employing the expression "succumbed to mortality" instead of the more neutral "died".

Influence-oriented verbiage: Dysphemisms are strategically harnessed to underscore the unpleasant nature of a topic. For instance, portraying a product's reduced cost as a "liquidation sale".

Direct utilization in speech or adherence to literal connotations: Dysphemisms manifest a more direct and literal approach, striving to unequivocally communicate negative aspects. It is imperative to acknowledge the potential overlap in certain facets between euphemisms and dysphemisms, and the classification of a specific term often hinges on the thematic content, contextual framing, and adherence to cultural norms.

We constantly witness the emergence of new euphemisms and dysphemisms in language. The ever-evolving world, ongoing wars, newly emerging diseases, environmental issues, the challenges faced by the youth, and the relentless progress of science and technology can contribute to this phenomenon. At times, we come across words in language that seem novel to us, yet we later realize that these words derive from an existing term in another linguistic subset. In contemporary times, euphemisms created through this process are frequently encountered in media writings.

For instance, in English, the verb "to google" (to search) has been formed from the name "Google" (search engine), and it is used as a substitute for the word "search." Another example is the creation of the word "saucy" from the word "sassy", which is widely employed as a euphemism in literary works, daily conversations, and media.

One prominent methodology evident in the composition of euphemisms is their generation through the diminutive structure. In this context, a segment of the term is excised, and the creation of a more euphonious neologism is achieved by appending an additional affix. For example, within the Azerbaijani lexicon, the utilization of "kificik" instead of "fox kifik" (signifying very small) or "uzunsov" as a substitute for "uzun" (indicating long) aptly illustrates this linguistic phenomenon.

A distinct genre of euphemism found in language involves the representation of a derogatory term or an unpleasant address by merely inscribing the initial letter of that particular term. This particular convention is frequently discerned in textual compositions within the realm of social media.

Upon scrutinizing the configuration of euphemisms manifested within the linguistic framework, one perceives the creation of euphemistic renditions for expressions deemed unfavorable by substituting the original term with a more concise word or its antonym.

For instance, in the English linguistic domain, while the term "negro" undergoes replacement with "black man" as a euphemism, it concurrently undergoes substitution with amalgamations like "Afro-American people." A commensurate pattern is observable within the Azerbaijani linguistic milieu, where the phrase "xarab mahsul" (conveying spoiled product) can be supplanted with "istehsalat xatasi" (denoting production defect) as an illustrative instance of euphemistic application.

3. Lexical-Semantic Characteristics of Euphemisms

Euphemisms and disphemisms embody lexical- semantic attributes that exemplify the linguistic facets of language. Euphemisms serve as linguistic tools utilized to substitute forthright, pointed meanings with more subdued alternatives, whereas disphemisms, conversely, encompass derogatory expressions. In a general sense, the fundamental lexical features unique to euphemisms and disphe- misms can be delineated as follows:

1) Adherence to the tenet of politeness: Euphemisms are employed to conform to the dictates of politeness, constituting linguistically appropriate expressions within a social framework.

2) Indirect mode of expression: Euphemisms fundamentally represent a method for conveying intended meanings indirectly, eschewing direct articulation.

3) Metaphorical expression: Euphemisms can be articulated with metaphorical nuances, fostering a more refined effect and, at times, a poetic resonance.

4) Minimization of subject impact: Euphemisms frequently attenuate the gravity of a given subject or diminish potential negative connotations, thereby mitigating the subject's significance.

5) Positive impact creation: Through the utilization of euphemisms, one can substitute negative or severe content with positive or neutral lexemes, ultimately reshaping the overall tenor of discourse towards positivity.

4. The Lexical-Semantic Characteristics of Disphemisms

1) Conveying Negative Meaning: Disphemisms carry negative and even derogatory contexts with the intention of demeaning or criticizing any individual or content.

2) Performing the Intensification Function: Disphemisms have the capacity to intensify the negative facets of a term or circumstance, amplifying them beyond what may be considered necessary. Consequently, disphemisms metamorphose into forthright and openly offensive expressions, eschewing more courteous alternatives.

3) Emotional Verbal Interaction: Comprised of emotionally laden terms or expressions, disphemisms can efficaciously amplify the grave and adverse aspects to elicit a specific reaction.

4) Harsh or Vulgar Language: Disphemisms leverage stern and indelicate language to engender a more potent impact and communicate that impact to the opposing party. Generally, discourse containing euphemisms or disphemisms may display variations across diverse cultural, societal, and individual contexts. Thus, these elucidated lexical characteristics also possess the adaptability to conform to a spectrum of social and cultural norms.

5. The Place of Euphemisms and dysphemisms in Speech

In the "General Linguistics" book by the distinguished Azerbaijani linguist A. Gurbanov, it is mentioned that words in language serve two main functions, one of which is to name various events actually happening, and the other is to express concepts in a generalized manner. These two functions are interconnected and mutually influence each other (A. Gurbanov, General Linguistics Volume 1, p. 202). Euphemisms are also words, and their primary function is to cover the real semantic meaning and avoid stating what is intended. Therefore, euphemisms are often referred to as the "language of hypocrisy".

The use of euphemisms in speech can influence our semantic choices and shape the social understanding of speakers. During usage, euphemisms can openly create semantic issues. The use of words like "independent capitalists" instead of "business owners", "modesty" instead of "layoff", or "reduction" instead of "being released from work" can be criticized as creating more disinformation in euphemistic usage.

This is because the intended meaning is expressed not with words that convey that meaning but rather with words intended to broadcast a different reality.

In such instances, a word is said, yet it ought to be articulated as another term. This scenario prompts a mental association of the uttered expressions with genuine meanings of words, introducing disparate linguistic elements. This, consequently, qualifies as a manifestation of meiosis, constituting a distinct semantic process. Consequently, the characterization of euphemisms as disinformation is not justified merely because they frequently obfuscate the fundamental meaning.

For instance, a statesperson designating a war as a conflict may be subject to accusations of deceit, whereas attributing the term "experienced" to an elderly individual rather than "old" would present challenges in levying such accusations. Thus, euphe- mization and disinformation emerge as inherently divergent concepts, their divergence rooted in distinct communicative functions, and, as such, their amalgamation under a common designation proves untenable.

In any form, mass media outlets, social media, print, or online publications are means that impact public perception and action by delivering information to the public. Media discourse fulfills the public's needs for information and education. While media outlets provide general information to everyone when delivering information, they can also influence the formation of opinions when conveying scientific discoveries, recent decisions, or the activities of public institutions.

The purpose of news reporting is to direct the public's attention to the potential content of the material, and this can include issues that are considered more risky. Considering the semantic characteristics of euphemisms is crucial, especially in media discourse. This is because portraying certain events as they are may be deemed impractical. Sometimes, there is a perceived need to add a different shade to the existing meaning to gain acceptance of certain information. In this regard, euphemisms witnessed more frequently in media discourse can be categorized into two groups:

Positive and negative euphemisms convey meanings with different connotations. aging linguistic euphemism terminology

Euphemisms carrying a positive connotation amplify and embellish the subject, making it more attention-grabbing and enlarging its significance. Descriptive topics are expressed more favorably through euphemisms than they actually are. Certain job titles or events can transform into more accepted subjects through the use of euphemisms. For example, instead of the phrase "violation of the law", you might frequently encounter the expression "administrative error" in the media. Semantically, both terms have the same meaning: they refer to a breach of the rules defined by the law. Recently, in the media, the term "lawyer" has been replaced with "legal professional." Both terms carry the same semantic meaning, but "legal professional" is generally considered more acceptable.

6. The Redundancy of Euphemistic Nominations

One of the most prevalent categories of euphemisms is litotes. This rhetorical device is frequently encountered across various linguistic contexts. It entails the presentation of a word in a manner that is not entirely direct but rather softened for the benefit of the listener or reader. In such instances, the utilization of the antonym or a more gently nuanced synonym serves to witness the avoidance of causing psychological discomfort to the audience.

From a historical perspective, while a substantial majority of euphemisms have traditionally comprised religious-themed expressions, in certain cultural contexts, a significant portion of euphemisms revolves around terminology related to gender and age. Undoubtedly, societal perceptions, where men are considered stronger and women are viewed as delicate or even weak, have significantly influenced the developmental stages of society. Consequently, a distinct linguistic phenomenon is observed between representatives of the two genders, manifesting as a process that may appear markedly dissimilar at times. This has led to the assertion that the term "feminine" in the English language can be considered a euphemism in specific contexts. In instances where the use of "woman" may be deemed inappropriate, there is a preference for terms like "life partner" or the more commonplace "wife" during everyday discourse to ensure a more fitting resonance in social interactions.

A similar situation is observed in the Azerbaijani language. In Azerbaijani, there is the word "arvad", which carries the meaning of "woman." Depending on the context, this word, widely present in our language as a neutral term, sometimes exhibits euphemistic characteristics and at other times carries dis- femistic nuances. When used to mean "spouse", the use of the term "arvad" is considered ordinary. However, addressing a young lady as "arvad" is not considered a polite behavior. In general communication, referring to rural women as "arvad" does not pose a problem. However, in expressions like "acting like an arvad" or "crying like an arvad", the term takes on a completely disfemistic connotation. In the contemporary era, both in English and Azerbaijani, the word "miss" is more frequently used by everyone because it is considered more appropriate and polite. Currently, the terms "xanim/miss" are widely employed in language for both addressing purposes and distinguishing between genders.

Conclusions

Historically, various societal concerns such as antipathy, impropriety, ailment, gender, religious discourse, mortality, peril, and apprehension have necessitated the proscription of specific lexemes in public discourse. These subject matters have frequently been subject to restraint during colloquy, exerting a substantial impact on linguistic expression. According to the outcomes of empirical investigations, euphemistic and dysphemistic expressions often emerge as byproducts of the taboo phenomena. Lifting censorship can engender profound repercussions for the censurer and even those within their immediate social circles. Hence, one may deduce that euphemisms essentially function as social sanctions imposed upon actions perceived as impolitic in a particular semantic context.

Broadly speaking, in any given contextual setting, euphemistic discourse is construed as comporting with conventional norms of politeness, while disphemistic utilization is perceived as transgressing established social conventions due to its derogatory nature. In terms of outcomes, the primary intent behind the deployment of euphemistic and dysphemistic language is not merely to obfuscate or demonstrate courtesy. Instead, their communicative utility takes precedence above all other considerations.

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Анотація

Характерні особливості евфемізмів та дисфемізмів

Юсіфова С. Р.

При детальному дослідженні лексико-семантичного значення евфемізмів і дисфемізмів, визначних стилістичних засобів у мові, стає очевидним, що ці вирази переважно сформовані соціальними та суспільними чинниками. Наприклад, розгортання теми старіння, особливо для жінок, вимагає прискіпливого розгляду, що ґрунтується на уявленні про те, що старіння - це тема, яку нелегко охопити більшість людей. Використання таких фраз, як «ви постаріли», вважається несумісним з нормами ввічливості. Під час дискусій, пов'язаних із недосконалістю, релігією та проблемами здоров'я, люди повинні проявляти особливу обережність, утримуючись від відкритого формулювання слів, безпосередньо пов'язаних із темою. Використання таких термінів, як «поганий» замість «хворий», є наочним прикладом. Мова, яка використовується в спілкуванні, зазвичай має тенденцію полегшувати потенційно тривожні події, виражаючи їх більш приємною термінологією, таким чином сприяючи сприятливому середовищу для комфортного сприйняття теми.

У різних контекстах доповнення процесу дискурсу евфемізмами або дисфемізмами набуває першочергового значення. У той час як використання евфемізмів має на меті започаткувати взаєморозуміння між людьми під час спілкування, дисфемізми, навпаки, вносять елемент напруги, зображуючи певні події в принизливому чи критичному світлі. У суспільстві, яке є свідком ескалації траєкторії чутливості, прямий дискурс на теми, які викликають таку чутливість, зазвичай вважається недоречним. Однак повсюдне використання евфемізмів ставить питання, чи не заважає воно нашому розпізнаванню та диференціації цих термінів. Ці лінгвістичні вирази час від часу використовуються як засіб експресивного впливу переважаючих сил. Як загальновизнано, утримання від обговорення тем, які не мають широкого суспільного визнання, виявляється важкою справою. Отже, люди постійно намагаються знайти шляхи для обговорення тем, які викликають вагання або вважаються табу. Незважаючи на сумлінне використання евфемізмів у спілкуванні та незважаючи на поширеність численних евфемістичних виразів у сучасних мовах, існує досить велика кількість дисфемізмів. Дисфемізми, що відрізняються від евфемізмів, охоплюють принизливі або критичні вирази, які виставляють конкретні події в невигідному світлі.

Ключові слова: евфемізм, дисфемізм, медіа, домінанта, суспільство.

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