Peculiarities of translating country-specific and ethnographic realities

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Hryhorii Skovoroda university in Pereiaslav

Tetiana Zabolotna,

Ph.D. in philology, associate professor at the department of foreign philology, translation and teaching methodology

Abstract

This article is devoted the information about the classification of words-realia and the ways of translation. The thesis highlights the ways and methods of reproducing in Ukrainian culturally-marked signs of the ethno-cultural lexical units in the English text. Translation of ethno-cultural lexical units is a very broad, complex and multifaceted phenomenon, encompassing much more factors than it seems at first glance. It is not just copying the words from the original work while changing the language, but it consists of a careful selection of appropriate equivalents, combining them together in a skillful way while taking into consideration numerous aspects, one of them being the text type.

The purpose of this work is, therefore, to present various types of translation of ethno-cultural lexical units, specify their implications for translators and determine the role of the correct recognition of text type in producing a successful translation. Various techniques of reproducing the culturally-marked signs of ethno-cultural lexical units are studied by famous scientists such as R. Zorivchak, V. Caraban, V. Koptylov, I. Korunets, and others.

Translation is considered through its correlation with such notions of cognitive linguistics as concept, cultural concept and artistic world picture. In order to discuss the notion of ethnic realia, it is necessary to differentiate between other terms which are incorporated into its definition, namely: realia, exoticisms, loan words and internationalisms; national symbols, ethno names, the relation between realia and ethnic realia.

The good translation will be done on the assumption that a text type is one of the basic factors that allow the translator to recognise the function and purpose of these units. Thus, depending on the nature of these, the translator will inevitably resort to different techniques and strategies in order to successfully render the source text. Therefore, identifying the origin of ethno-cultural lexical units also helps the translator to select the appropriate translation strategy.

Therefore, the translation of ethno-cultural lexical units can be deemed successful if: in an informative text it provides direct and full access to the conceptual content of the source language text; in an expressive text it transmits a direct impression of the artistic form of the conceptual content; in an operative text it produces a text from which it will directly elicit the desired response.

Key words: realia, translation, non-equivalent vocabulary, calques, word-for - word translation.

Анотація

Особливості перекладу країнознавчих та етнографічних реалій

кандидат філологічних наук, доцент, доцент кафедри іноземної філології, перекладу та методики навчання Університету Григорія Сковороди в Переяславі

У статті представлено інформацію про класифікацію слів-реалій та способи їх перекладу. Тези висвітлюють способи та методи відтворення українською мовою культурно маркованих ознак етнокультурних лексичних одиниць в англійському тексті. Переклад етнокультурних лексичних одиниць є дуже широким, складним і багатогранним явищем, що охоплює набагато більше факторів, ніж здається на перший погляд. Це не просто копіювання слів з оригінального твору з зміною мови, а ретельний відбір відповідних еквівалентів, вміле поєднання їх разом з урахуванням численних аспектів, одним із яких є тип тексту.

Різні техніки відтворення культурно маркованих ознак етнокультурних лексичних одиниць досліджуються відомими науковцями, такими як Р. Зорівчак, В. Карабан, В. Коптилов, І. Корунець та ін.

Переклад розглядається через його кореляцію з такими поняттями когнітивної лінгвістики, як концепт, культурний концепт та художня картина світу. Для обговорення поняття етнічних реалій необхідно розмежувати інші терміни, що входять у його визначення, а саме: реалії, екзотизми, запозичення та інтернаціоналізми; національні символи, етноніми, співвідношення між реаліями та етнічними реаліями.

Професійний переклад виконується на основі типів тексту, що є одним із основних чинників, які дозволяють перекладачеві розпізнати функцію та призначення цих одиниць. Отже, залежно від їхньої природи, перекладач неминуче вдаватиметься до різних технік та стратегій для успішного відтворення вихідного тексту.

Ключові слова: реалії, переклад, безеквівалентна лексика, калькування, дослівний переклад.

Main part

ethnocultural translation english lexical

Introduction. Over the past decades, scholars have been attempting to systematize and generalize the fundamental stages of language development as a means of reflecting human cognitive activity. Language reflects reality and creates a unique worldview for each nation, ethnic group, or linguistic community that utilizes it as a means of communication. Language is a treasury of culture, preserving cultural values in its vocabulary, grammar, folklore, literary art, and forms of written and oral expression. Within language, natural conditions, geographic location, the course of historical development, the character of social structure, trends in public opinion, science, art, customs, traditions, and so forth, invariably find their reflection.

At the present stage of linguistic development, researchers are particularly interested in studying the relationship between language and culture, analyzing the ethnocultural peculiarities of communication among representatives of different nations. This interest is driven both by the constant expansion of intercultural dialogue and by the acknowledgment of the impossibility of understanding a national language without considering the historical and sociocultural specifics of its speakers' existence. Realities are considered special units capable of reflecting the national-cultural uniqueness of language at the lexical level.

Translation plays a crucial role in the development of languages. It is not merely an attempt to convey specific information using another language but also an exploration of the capabilities of translation, its ability to convey thoughts expressed in another language. When the language of translation lacks necessary lexical units, translators are the first to attempt to create corresponding lexical equivalents in the translated language when they encounter gaps. In the process of translation, it is necessary to establish linguistic correspondences between the original language and the translated language, conveying not only linguistic forms but also the linguistic worldview. Translation involves contact not only between two languages but also between two cultures. What is obvious to a native speaker of one language may be incomprehensible to a native speaker of another language.

Research into the ethnospecificity of lexical units as linguistic and cultural heritage is exceptionally important. Linguists' interest in this problem and their comprehensive study of it in translation theory and practice are already traditional. Over the years, the issue of realia has attracted the attention of researchers and has been the subject of scientific inquiry both in Ukrainian linguistics (F. Batsevych, L. Verba, I. Holubovska, Yu. Zhliuktenko, R. Zorivchak, A. Ivanov, V. Karaban, I. Korunets, V.D. Radchuk, O.O. Selivanova) and in translation studies. Linguists and translators have attempted to thoroughly define the concept of realities, developed various approaches to the classification of nationally marked lexical units, and analyzed methods of conveying realities in other languages. Renowned linguists such as V. Karaban, I. Korunets, and many others have dedicated numerous articles and monographs to the study of translational transformations.

Since the declaration of Ukraine as an independent state, research in translation studies has significantly intensified. Translation began to be considered as a cultural factor in Ukraine's independence, as a means of asserting Ukrainian identity on the global stage. Ideas from such research were borrowed from linguoculturology, history, and political science. The popularization of the Ukrainian language and political changes in the state have contributed to the exploration of specific lexical translation issues, the reproduction of the sound of foreign proper names in Ukrainian and Ukrainian in foreign languages, and the multifaceted problems of translation. This situation has further increased the need for research into ethno-realities, which reflect the specificity of each individual nation.

1) Characterize the theoretical foundations of studying linguistic units belonging to the ethnocultural linguistic fund and conduct a linguistic analysis of translation problems of ethno-realities.

2) Describe the prerequisites for reproducing ethnocultural specificity in translation and attempt to select an appropriate translation type in accordance with the semantics of the ethnocultural linguistic unit.

3) Determine translation strategies and tactics adequate for preserving lexical universality/ethnospecificity in translation.

The main research methods include those ensuring objectivity in approaching the interpretation of the set of tasks based on the comprehensive use of sources. The following methods have been applied:

1) Complex contrastive-translation analysis with elements of transformational and contextual analyses.

2) Translation-interpretation analysis for analyzing originals and translations.

3) Contextual analysis for identifying contexts necessary for translating ethno-realities.

4) Cross-cultural analysis for identifying ethnospecificity of ethno - realities in texts from different linguistic-cultural traditions.

5) Etymological analysis for determining the origin of ethno-reality units and their semantic connections with other lexical/phraseological units.

6) Method of interpreting symbols for identifying ethno-realities, their differentiation, and translation studies analysis.

7) Descriptive method.

The issues of language and culture interaction, the influence of cultural, social, and psychological factors on language processes, have recently attracted increased interest from linguists, as such research opens up additional opportunities for scientific insight into the sphere of linguistic consciousness, the relationship between language and personality.

The study of ethnocultural linguistic units is associated with the concept of «linguistic worldview», which has become the subject of study for scholars such as A. Ivanov, I. Korolyov, I. Malyarenko, O. Nahorna, and others. Their research, in turn, has led to increased interest in studying linguistic phenomena in connection with individual thinking, consciousness, culture, and worldview, for both individuals and linguistic communities. This has spurred the emergence of new linguistic fields such as ethnolinguistics, ethnopsycholinguistics, psycholinguistics,

linguaculturology, theory of interlingual communication, and others.

The study of idioethnic, ethnocultural, and nationally specific features of language speakers primarily relies on linguistic lexical units, which reveal the connection between language and the culture of the ethnic group.

Ethnolinguistics (from Greek ethnos - nation and lingvo - linguistics) is a branch of linguistics that studies language in its connections with culture, the interaction of linguistic, ethnocultural, and ethnopsychological factors in the functioning and development of language.

Ethnolinguistics is a scientific discipline that lies at the intersection of ethnography and linguistics, examining the relationship between ethnic groups and languages. It includes elements of sociolinguistics, ethnology, paralinguistics, covering the spheres of ethnogenesis and ethnic history, ethnolinguistic processes in internal and interlingual contacts, the role of language in the formation of ethnic communities, the specificity of communicative behavior of members of a particular national linguacultural community, and so on [6, p. 284].

Among the issues investigated in the ethnolinguistics way, phenomena such as the interrelation and mutual influence of language, environment, and ethnic group, universal concepts and conceptual analysis of language, study of national concepts, the role of vocabulary in the cultural-national aspect, description of significant segments of the linguistic worldview of a particular ethnic group, etc., have recently moved to the forefront. According to O. Selivanova, it is necessary to define the «ethnocultural identity» of an individual, which includes ethnocultural competence and has the following components:

1) Cultural attitudes;

2) Cultural values;

3) Cultural norms» [6, p. 284].

Cultural attitudes entail an individual's inclination toward a certain behavior conditioned by ethnic culture as a previous experience of repeating specific actions in identical conditions. Such fixed attitudes reflect not only the individual's needs and environmental conditions but also actions leading to successful completion of the behavior. Sometimes, such attitudes are referred to as «superstitions», which fix a biased attitude towards someone or something without substantial grounds. «Superstitions arise as a result of insufficient knowledge or distorted understanding of what becomes the object of superstition» [6, p. 284].

Cultural values are «determined by the culture's evaluation of objects and phenomena of reality according to criteria of positive and negative, beautiful and ugly, necessary and forbidden, suitable and unsuitable, useful and useless, etc.» [6, p. 284].

Ethnocultural linguistic units most often denote phenomena and objects related to everyday human life, household, culture, and social life.

I. V. Korunets refers to ethnocultural linguistic units as «the national units» and includes vocabulary in this category. «…designating national customs, traditions, folk rites and feasts, administrative or political systems, peculiar geographical, geological or environmental conditions of a nation's life. No less peculiar may also be the cultural or religious traditions of a nation often expressed through certain proper names or names of saints (cf. Ukrainian Івана Купала, Маковія, or Ireland's St. Patrick, Scottish tartan, American Uncle Sam or the British John Bull, the British Lion» [4, p. 123].

The monetary system is represented by lexical units such as shilling, penny, hryvnia, rouble, dollar, cent. Clothing items include the Scottish kilt, tartan, the American Indians' moccasins. National dishes, elements of daily life, customs, and traditions also belong to ethnocultural linguistic units: English: Shepherd's pie, bacon, jeans, Coca-Cola, corn-flakes, sweater, tweed, whisky, moonlighter, whip, Holy Shroud, Holy supper, Pentacost, Commemoration of ancestors, Whitsunday, the feast of Presentation, to bless water, bacon, Yorkshire pudding, frankfurters, hot dogs; ale, gin; stuffed cabbage (leafs), Epiphany, the feast of the Annunciation, miracle - workers, Willow Sunday/Palm Sunday, Passion Friday, the Easter Matins, the High mess, unleavened bread, the Feast of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin, Twelfth-day, the pre-Christmas fast, The Birthday of the most Holy Mother of God, The Archangel Michael's Day, St. John the Baptist etc.

Укр: кобзар, веснянка, коломийка, козак, запорожець, кептар, копа (яєць), пуд, січ, свитка, хата, лежак, лежанка, припічок, ослін, клуня, сажок, жлукто, троїсті музики, копаниця, заступ, вечорниці, борщ, вареники, галушки, кутя, медок, ряжанка, самогон, опришок, куліш, плачинда, верета, кочерга, ступа, коромисло, шинок, цеберко, перелаз, судник, гарба, гребінь, макітра, чирінь, прясла, пательня, бануш, призьба, литавр, гуслі, сурма, трембіта, бунчук, виборний, осаул, тулумбас, сіряк, свитка, плахта, гривня.

Addressing the translation of ethnocultural linguistic units allows for a better understanding of the process of cognition. It is within these linguistic units that all cognitive processes are concentrated: the perception, understanding, and cognition of the surrounding world by humans at different stages of their development are reflected, and the memory of past times is preserved.

The linguistic units that verbalize ethno-realities in modern English are one fragment of the linguistic worldview, which in modern linguistics encompasses the perception and understanding of the world expressed through the means of a particular language and referred to as ethno-realities. The concept of «ethno-realities» in contemporary science is ambiguous. This ambiguity stems from the history of linguistic development. Historically, there have been two main approaches to defining the essence of realia words: translation-oriented, associated with preserving national - cultural content in another language, and country-studies-oriented, correlating with the expansion of ethnocultural awareness. At the present stage, certain aspects of ethno-realities come under the purview of linguacultural studies and cognitive linguistics.

To illuminate the ethnic specificity of reality, it is worth examining in more detail the concept of «realia,» which is crucial for philological sciences and, in particular, for linguacultural studies and translation studies, whose primary task is the identification of the national-cultural component of linguistic units.

R. Zoryvchak, considering realia as «…a variable, relative category that becomes apparent in binary contrastive comparison of specific languages (and cultures)», implies that the scope of realia in the source language will vary according to the lexical composition of the recipient language, which in turn depends on the scale of cultural and ethnic contacts of the respective linguistic communities [2].

R. Zoryvchak has made a significant contribution to the study of realia. According to her, «realia are mono - and polysemantic units, the main lexical meaning of which encompasses (in terms of binary comparison) a traditionally established complex of ethnocultural information foreign to the objective reality of the recipient language.» Furthermore, R. Zoryvchak refers to vocabulary with ideological and aesthetic value as «ethnolexicon», as it is associated with national color, national distinctiveness, and serves as an ethnic component of culture[2].

This definition is of interest to us for two reasons: firstly, it encompasses all textual manifestations of variant forms of realia and allows for distinguishing realia from related phenomena such as neologisms, terms, dialects, and symbols; and secondly, based on the assertion that realia represent a complex of ethnocultural information, it can be assumed that «realia may acquire, in the context of any stylistic function, a certain adherent connotative semantics, moreover, become a keyword,» which in turn cannot but influence the translation methods that a translator must resort to in addressing a particular issue: «either to show specificity and fall into exoticism, or to preserve familiarity and lose specificity.»

In modern studies of local vocabulary, V. Hizer defines realia as «both objects and phenomena of culture, as well as the words that denote them. In terms of content, realia are facts related to the political structure of a particular country, its natural features, history, and culture. In terms of expression, realia are actualized by a wide range of linguistic means, mostly including words, phrases, sentences, and abbreviations».

I. Malyarenko defines ethno-realities as «national-specific realities of the existence of a people, which include both specific phenomena of nature and material achievements and acquisitions of a specific culture and history. Research on ethno-realities is based on the assumption that a person's ability to categorize is related to their experience and imagination, perception characteristics, and culture, «as well as the concept of mental representations, «which are understood as conditionally functionally defined structures of human consciousness and thinking that reproduce the real world in consciousness, embody knowledge about the world and the feelings it evokes, reflect states of consciousness and processes of thinking.» Therefore, the processes of thinking and activity are represented in English ethno-realities, which reproduce the connection between mental and everyday processes in the development of the ethnic group [5, p. 79-85].

N. Chumak considers the concept of «ethno-realities» in relation to other types of nationally-specific vocabulary, including realia, exoticisms, borrowings, and internationalisms; he explores the correlation between ethno-realities-gallicisms and ethno-concepts-gallicisms. «Ethnographic realities (ethno-realities) a priori cannot presuppose the existence of the concept of equivalent, since it is impossible to convey all the potential of the existing national-specific information in them by any equivalent. Therefore, it can be said that the concept of `realm' is correlated with the concept of 'non-equivalent vocabulary, ' while ethno-realities - words borrowed from another language and integrated into another language, preserving cultural information in it, so the terms realia and ethno-realities belong to different scientific paradigms (translation studies and linguistics, respectively» [7, p. 114-122].

N.A. Chumak clearly and convincingly distinguishes the concepts of «ethno-realities» and «exoticisms,» considering them irrelevant because it becomes clear that «exoticism acquires a stylistic, nationally-specific coloration only under certain conditions (adequate perception by the reader, the degree of persuasiveness of the author's text, and ultimately, the appropriateness of using the exoticism itself), while ethno-reality from the very beginning, not yet introduced into the 'foreign-language environment, ' carries stylistic, semantic, conceptual load» [7, p. 114-122].

The evidence of the difference between ethno-realities and borrowings is that ethno-realities have complete or partial non-adaptation of the graphic form, phonetic-graphic variation, occasional usage by authors in journalism and sometimes absence of fixation in English-language dictionaries.

It is also necessary to distinguish ethno-realities from internationalisms. Sometimes, certain ethno-realities become internationalisms (gangster - «ганстер», park - «парк,» etc.), as they are used in many languages. Therefore, such internationalisms may permanently and irreversibly transition to the category of ethno-realities of the British ethnic group. Thus, internationalisms constitute a certain part of ethno - realities, which may vary depending on the popularity among language speakers, into which they (ethno-realities) are integrated or not.

I.O. Holubovska attempts to differentiate between ethno-realities and non-ethno-realities. The researcher takes into account the principles of objective selection of lexical units that have the necessary cultural load and proposes the following criteria for the selection of investigated units: the principle of lexical (cultural) elaboration, meaning that a given ethno-reality, if present in English dictionaries, will be marked by various lexicographic notes attributing it to certain cultural spheres; the principles of frequency of usage and prevalence within English phraseological units allow for the differentiation of one ethno-reality from another, distinguishing it from exoticisms or other types of foreign language vocabulary within the realm of English-language journalistic discourse; the principle of axiological marking allows us to assert that in ethno-realities, realized in language as cultural symbols or cultural concepts or linguistic-cultural concepts, information is recorded that has a condensed-emotive meaning for the ethnic group in whose language originated [1].

The basis for the formation of ethnospecific realities of a people's existence lies in the natural-geographical, cultural-historical, socioeconomic peculiarities of the life of a particular ethnic group. Ethno-realities represent ethnocultural information and certain ethnic stereotypes. They are inseparable from the place and time, providing significant information for understanding the way of thinking, lifestyle, and history of the speakers of the source language. Ethno-realities reflect the entire content of knowledge, experience, results of activity, and cognition of the surrounding environment.

In translation studies, there are numerous classifications of types of translation transformations, but they can all be divided into three main groups: lexical, grammatical, and lexical-grammatical transformations.

Any grammatical unit of a foreign language can undergo substitution at any level: word form, part of speech, sentence member, sentence of a certain type. It is understood that in translation, there is always a substitution of forms of the foreign language for forms of the target language. Grammatical substitution, as a special translation method, implies not just the use of forms of the target language in translation but the abandonment of using forms of the target language analogous to the source, replacing such forms with others that differ from them in content (grammatical meaning).

The primary and essential quality a translator must possess is the ability to «see» translation problems, the capacity to resist the temptation of substituting words from the original with words from the target language.

Translation transformations (substitutions) occur due to the lack of complete correspondence or discrepancies between English and Ukrainian. Translation transformations are a common type of interlingual transformations, which are quite prevalent. In translation, the translator almost always encounters discrepancies between the grammatical structures of the source language and the target language. This happens more often than the absence of lexical equivalents. To quickly select the correct translation variant, an interpreter should be aware of all types of grammatical transformations: syntactic similarities, permutations, sentence articulation, sentence consolidation, replacement of sentence members, transformation of word order from reverse to direct, transformation of active constructions into passive and vice versa, predicate changes in translation, omission, addition, grammatical substitutions of parts of speech, and unmotivated transformations.

According to V. Karaban, the similarity between the grammatical properties of Ukrainian and English is determined by their common belonging to the Indo-European family and is manifested in the presence of common grammatical meanings, categories, and functions, such as number categories in nouns, degrees of comparison in adjectives, tense categories in verbs, functional significance of word order, and so on [3].

At the same time, divergence in grammatical principles, expressed in the affiliation of these languages to different grammatical groups, is reflected in significant differences between grammatical properties, such as the existence of dissimilar grammatical categories: articles in English, gerunds in Ukrainian; full agreement in Ukrainian, fixed word order in English.

A translator approaches transformations, including grammatical ones, to convey the content of information in English in the form in which they would convey this information if they were native English speakers, meaning the role of the subjective factor in oral translation increases.

Examples of grammatical transformations can be found in the following excerpt: «The Archangel Michael's Day - День Архангела Михаїла» [8].

In this phrase, which consists of three components (1+2+3), when translated into Ukrainian, it is necessary to change the word order. The translation is done in the following order of lexical components: 3+1+2. Permutation - the change in arrangement (order of occurrence) of linguistic elements in the translation compared to the original text - is quite common. These elements include words, phrases, main and subordinate clauses, and entire sentences.

Sometimes translators have to create equivalent terms in their native language on their own, and the main problem they face is precisely in translating terms, which leads to the emergence of neologisms, constituting a significant percentage of all vocabulary in translations.

In the phrase `People's Democracy', which we translate as «країни народної демократії.», we also resort to transformation. This necessity arises from the use of an additional word, as in the source text there are two lexical units, while in the translation there are three, meaning we resort to addition.

Considering the transformation of addition, we should note that a translator does not have the right to add anything of their own to the content of the translated text: investigative assistance - допомога у проведенні розслідування, spontaneous information - надання інформації без попереднього прохання, obligation to confiscate - зобов'язання здійснювати конфіскацію. The transformation of addition is used to comply with the norms of translation language and ensure greater motivation and clarity of translated words.

R. Zorivchak proposes 10 ways of rendering realia:

1) Transcription and transliteration (transcoding);

2) Hyperonymic renaming;

3) Descriptive paraphrase;

4) Transposition at the connotative level;

5) Full and partial calquing;

6) Combined renaming;

7) Selection of situational equivalents;

8) Contextual interpretation of realia;

9) Method of assimilation;

10) Zero translation [2].

The researcher also defines strategies for translating realia: foreignization and adaptation, which involve preserving «foreign» elements of the source language and adapting «foreign» elements to the norms of the target language (to simplify the perception of information) accordingly. The strategy of foreignization includes transliteration, transcription, descriptive paraphrase, and combined renaming. The adaptation strategy encompasses such translation methods as calquing, interlingual connotative transposition, the method of assimilation, and contextual interpretation.

Summarizing the above, we confirm the opinion of I. Korunets that «the basic concept of translation theory is the concept of equivalence» [4, p.

320].The reasons for translational transformations are significant differences in the communicative competencies of speakers of the source language and the target language, and the necessity to «smooth out» these differences in order to achieve equivalence of the regulatory influence of the source and translated texts. When translating, it is advisable to show greater flexibility regarding word order, readiness to replace nouns with verbs, and verbs with nouns, transform active constructions into passive ones and vice versa, omit some words, and rearrange parts of sentences.

We have cited and discussed the views of linguists and translators on the belongingness to a particular ethnic group, the designation of household, cultural, and specifically national concepts and situations that do not exist in the practice of another linguistic community, the necessity of deep knowledge and understanding of the hidden meaning expressed, without which it is impossible to master English perfectly. We have traced the systemic connections of linguistic units that verbalize ethnorealities in modern English. Knowledge about the world reflected in ethnorealities is formed through words realized in language by the totality of all meanings of linguistic units of various levels of complexity, from word to text.

All of the above allows us to assert that ethnographic realities are referential words, the nomination of which semantically reflects the entire complex of ethnocultural information of a local nature that does not exist in the area of another linguistic culture.

When translating ethnographic realities, we deal with content, that is, one of the semantic components of a linguistic unit. It can be said that semantic equivalence is achieved due to the presence in the original text and the translated text of the same semes. In this case, the texts are in a relationship of component semantic equivalence. The second type of semantic equivalence, denotative, is associated with the phenomenon of linguistic selectivity. Its essence lies in the fact that the same object and the object situation can be described from different sides using different features. For example, «Вербна Неділя» can be translated as «Willow Sunday' or 'Palm Sunday'.

Thus, to achieve semantic equivalence, various translational transformations (transformations or replacements) are needed. At the level of component equivalence, transformations that affect the grammatical structure of the expression are mainly used. The level of denotative equivalence requires more complex lexical-grammatical transformations, which entail changes in the semantic structure of the expression.

In translation, the existence of non-equivalent grammatical units, which we refer to as ethnorealities, does not pose particular difficulties. The choice of grammatical form in translation depends not only and not so much on the grammatical form of the original but on its lexical content, that is, on the nature and meaning of the lexical units receiving a certain grammatical form in the expression. Divergence in such formatting is usually not an obstacle to establishing relations of equivalence between expressions in the original and in translation.

In view of all the above, it is evident that the translation of ethnocultural linguistic units that do not have direct counterparts in the target language is a certain problem, but this problem can be solved with the help of various translational strategies.

References

1. Holubovska, I.O. (2004). Etnospetsyfichni konstanty movnoi svidomosti: avtoref. dys… kand. filol. nauk: spets. 10.02.15 - «Zahalne movoznavstvo»; Kyiv. nats. un- t im. T. Shevchenka. [in Ukrainian].

2. Zorivchak, R.P. (1989). Realiia i pereklad (na materiali anhlomovnykh perekladiv ukr. Prozy Lviv, Lviv. derzh. un-ti, 215 s. [in Ukrainian].

3. Karaban, V.I. (2003). Pereklad z ukrainskoi movy na anhliisku movu: [navch. posibnyk-dovidnyk dlia studentiv vyshchykh zakladiv osvity] Karaban V.I., Borysova O.V., Kolodii B.M., Kuzmina K.A. Vinnytsia. Nova knyha, 608 s. [in Ukrainian].

4. Korunets, I.V. (2003). Theory and Practice of Translation: [pidruchn.] Vinnytsia, Nova knyha, 446 c. [in English].

5. Maliarenko, I.O. (2012). Intehrovanyi pidkhid do vyvchennia etnorealii v avstraliiskykh poetychnykh tekstakh Linhvistyka 1 (25), Kyiv. S. 79-85. [in Ukrainian].

6. Selivanova, O.O. (2008). Suchasna linhvistyka: terminolohichna entsyklopediia. Poltava, Dovkillia-Kyiv:762 s. [in Ukrainian].

7. Chumak, N.A. (2013) Etnorealii sered inshykh vydiv natsionalno-spetsyfichnoi leksyky (na materiali etnorealii-hallitsyzmiv u suchasnomu anhlomovnomu publitsystychnomu dyskursi). Tom 5. №2. S. 114-122.

Література

1. Голубовська І.О. Етноспецифічні константи мовної свідомості: автореф. дис… канд. філол. наук: спец. 10.02.15 - «Загальне мовознавство»; Київ. нац. ун-т ім. Т. Шевченка, 2014. 20 с.

2. Зорівчак Р.П. Реалія і переклад (на матеріалі англомовних перекладів укр. Прози. Львів: Львів. держ. ун-ті, 1989. 215 с.

3. Карабан В.І. Переклад з української мови на англійську мову: [навч. посібник-довідник для студентів вищих закладів освіти] / Карабан В. І., Борисова О.В., Колодій Б.М., Кузьміна К.А. Вінниця: Нова книга, 2003. 608 с.

4. Корунець, I.В. Theory and Practice of Translation: [підручн.] Вінниця: Нова книга, 2003. 446 c.

5. Маляренко, І. О. Інтегрований підхід до вивчення етнореалій в австралійських поетичних текстах. Лінгвістика 1 (25). Ч. ІІ. Київ, 2012. С. 79-85.

6. Селіванова, О.О. Сучасна лінгвістика: термінологічна енциклопедія. Полтава: Довкілля-Київ, 2008. 762 с.

7. Чумак, Н.А. Етнореалії серед інших видів національно-специфічної лексики (на матеріалі етнореалій-галліцизмів у сучасному англомовному публіцистичному дискурсі). 2005. Том 5. №2. С. 114-122.

8. The Mary Whitehouse Experience Encyclopedia. London: Fourth Estate, 2001. 160 p.

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