Metaphorical terms functional peculiarities in the English economic texts

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

Metaphorical terms functional peculiarities in the English economic texts

Shyshko A.V., Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University

Lukanska H.A., Prydniprovskyi Institute of Interregional Academy

of Personnel Management



The article is devoted to the study of functioning specifics of the economic metaphorical terms in the modern English media discourse. The relevance of the research is determined by the need to conduct a complex analysis of these units at the present stage of the economic sublanguage development identifying their main groups and defining their functional and semantic features. The purpose and the main tasks of the research consist in highlighting the concept of metaphorization, the essence of metaphor and metaphorical term, the study of the origin, functioning and main types of metaphors, analysis of the specifics of the formation of metaphorical terms, analysis of the main types of metaphorical terms in the English economic texts.

Having studied numerous theoretical sources, it was found out that researchers identify different types of metaphorical terms according to various concepts they are characterized by: according to the part of speech they belong to (substantival, adjectival, verbal), according to the content (hyperbolic metaphor, litotes, personification, objectification, symbol, allegory), according to the time and space (ontological and oriented), etc. Due to the meaning which metaphorical terms perform, they can be monosemantic and polysemantic. Due to the number of units performing the metaphorical image, the metaphor, as the part of the metaphorical terms, can be simple and developed. Due to the morphological characteristics, they can be formed by nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. In the result of the research conducted, the following classification of English economic metaphorical terms was proposed: naturemorphous, antropomorphous, sociomorphous, artifact and abstract. The scientific novelty and practical value of the work is explained by the fact that the proposed author's classification system by groups of the units under research can be used in the study of Stylistics and Terminology of Business English, applied in the practice of compiling dictionaries of various types or become a pattern for similar research on the material of other languages.

Key words: metaphor, metaphorical term, structural peculiarities, functional peculiarities, naturemorphous metaphorical terms, antropomorphous metaphorical terms, sociomorphous metaphorical terms, artifact metaphorical terms, abstract metaphorical terms.



Шишко А.В., Луканська Г.А.

Функціональні особливості метафоричних термінів в англійських текстах економічної спрямованості

Стаття присвячена дослідженню функціональних особливостей економічних метафоричних термінів сучасного англійського медіа дискурсу. Актуальність пропонованої студії зумовлено необхідністю проведення комплексного аналізу цих одиниць на сучасному етапі розвитку підмови економічної сфери з виокремленням їхніх основних груп та визначенням функціонально-семантичних особливостей. Мета та основні завдання дослідження полягають у висвітленні поняття метафоризації, сутності поняття метафори та метафоричного терміна, дослідженні особливостей виникнення, функціонування та основних видів метафор, аналізі специфіки утворення метафоричних термінів, проведенні аналізу особливостей функціонування основних типів метафоричних термінів в англомовних текстах економічної спрямованості.

У результаті огляду теоретичних першоджерел встановлено, що виділяють такі типи метафоричних термінів: за належністю до частини мови (іменникова, прикметникова, дієслівна); за змістом (гіперболічна метафора, літота, персоніфікація, опредметнення, символ, алегорія); за часом і простором (онтологічні та орієнтовані) тощо. За значенням метафоричні терміни можуть бути моносемантичними та полісемантичними. За кількістю одиниць, що створюють метафоричний образ, метафора як частина метафоричних термінів може бути простою та розгорнутою. За морфологічними ознаками вони можуть бути утвореними іменниками, дієсловами, прикметниками та прислівниками. У результаті проведеного дослідження запропоновано класифікацію англійських економічних метафоричних термінів, згідно з якою вирізняють: природо- морфні, антропоморфні, соціоморфні, артефактні та абстрактні терміни. Наукова новизна та практична значимість роботи полягає в тому, що запропонована авторська класифікаційна система досліджуваних одиниць за групами може бути використаною при вивченні стилістики та термінології ділової англійської мови, застосована у практиці складання словників різного типу або ж стати патерном для проведення подібних досліджень на матеріалі інших мов.

Ключові слова: метафора, метафоричний термін, структурні особливості, функціональні особливості, природоморфні метафоричні терміни, антропоморфні метафоричні терміни, соціоморфні метафоричні терміни, артефактні метафоричні терміни, абстрактні метафоричні терміни.



Introduction

Defining the problem and argumentation of the topicality of the consideration. In our days the Ukrainian society has reached a new level in its relations with the English-speaking world. Therefore, the English language, which is now actively used in all spheres of international cooperation, plays a very important role in the further success of such relations, one of the directions of which is the sphere of business. Thanks to the rapid development of this field, the special vocabulary of this field has also undergone changes. It is the vocabulary that is the brightest indicator of the modern world, the development of culture, and the worldview of a person. The words, phrases, metaphors, idioms that make up the language, change into a new quality, transform their stylistic and evaluative orientation. So, the study of the special vocabulary of a particular sphere allows us to find out exactly how the field of human activity is expressed in the language, how words are correlated with life experience, with the surrounding reality; makes it possible to highlight those associations that have caused the formation of a special vocabulary of a specific field.

Special terminology is one of the means of creating innovative ways of language expression. Today, there is a tendency to metaphorize the terms of a certain sphere, including the sphere of business. First of all, this is explained by the absence of the need to create a new word, because a metaphor allows you to develop and enrich the semantics of a word thanks to its use in a figurative sense. Thereafter, in order to express a new idea, a new concept that has not yet acquired its nomination, formation of new terms due to a change in meaning is often applied, that is, a metaphorical reinterpretation of commonly used words and terms. Figurative use of special scientific, professional, economic vocabulary allows not only to reflect the real world and objective knowledge about it, fixed in the language, but also to create imagery that will allow to imagine more vividly the described reality.

The relevance of the study is determined by a number of factors, in particular, the high popularity of the sublanguage of the economic sphere among representatives of various professional circles and the active level of formation and functioning of these language units at the current stage of economic development of the society. In addition, the study of the processes of metaphorical terms formation is one of the key areas of the modern cognitive linguistics research. The study is relevant because it is a comprehensive analysis of these units in the economic sphere with the selection of their main groups and functional-semantic features.

Analysis of recent research and publications. Metaphorical terms in the linguistic science have been investigated by J. Barnden, S. Glucksberg, D. McCloskey, E. McCormack, G. Lakoff, H. Diadiura, T. Kyiak, O. Ohui, A. Naumenko, T. Kiss, L. Pustovit, B. Toshovych, T. Dobrzhynska, T. Halai, B. Kachan, Yu. Kravtsova, O. Selivanova and many others. However, the features of their components have been mostly studied separately. Therefore, the scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that it offers a comprehensive analysis of the elements that make up metaphorical terms. In the process of research, special attention was paid to the main aspects of metaphor functioning, as the basis of metaphorical terms. In the research, for the first time it has been proposed to introduce their classification system by groups.

Setting the goals and tasks of the article. The object of this research is metaphorical terms in economic texts. The subject is represented by the features of different types of metaphors formation and peculiarities of their functioning in the economic discourse of the contemporary English. The target of the research consists in studying the processes of metaphorical terms formation and functioning in economic texts. To reach it, the following tasks must be completed: to define the notion of “metaphorization”; identify the main reasons for creating metaphorical terms; to investigate peculiarities of metaphorical nomination as a basis for their formation; to study its formation specifics; to analyze their structural models; to identify and analyze the main groups of these terms in the view of the chosen discourse functioning peculiarities. In order to solve the task, the following research methods were used: theoretical general scientific methods of abstraction, generalization, formalization; empirical and theoretical methods (analysis, system method and classification method); method of comparative analysis.



The outline of the main research material

According to some linguists, in the language of a special sphere of knowledge or field of activity, metaphor is not just the most adequate nomination of a certain concept, but often the only nomination of a particular object or process. A common feature of figurative means in the sphere of economy is the pragmatic nature of imagery, the characteristic features of which are objectivity, rigor, consistency, uniqueness [3, 15].

It is known that the reason for metaphorical transference is human thinking activity that is quite strongly influenced by numerous national and cultural peculiarities. Terminological nomination is also based mostly on the special national motivation. Especially it is relevant to the terms coined in the heart of the mother tongue, where metaphorical transfers prevail. Therefore, very often only a metaphorical term allows us to convey in the process of communication our understanding of the essence of a phenomenon or object that has not had its fixed name yet. Despite its conditionality, a metaphor contains such a volume of information that enables it to perform the functions of a term. The semantic change of such terms from the primary meaning of metaphor to a special meaning is considered to be characteristic for this phenomenon [1, 8-15].

The category of metaphor figurativeness is defined by H. Diadiura as a category that does not always have unambiguous interpretation; figurativeness is an obscure category stipulated by many conditions, that is why its perception in different professional spheres varies; language means can be qualified as figurative or non-figurative depending on a communicative situation. Usually the introduction of a certain term to the term system gives reasons to assert that its figurativeness is trite, and if it is a metaphor, it is “dead”. However, the scholar has proved experimentally that the image does not disappear completely, it can be restored under certain communicative circumstances [2, 11-14].

So, a metaphorical term is a metaphor, that is a transfer of names, based on the association of similarity, which denotes a certain scientific concept and is used in a special field.

There are three stages of term formation through the process of metaphorization:

1) selection of an object based on recognizable features that make up the initial concept of this object;

2) conceptualization, that is, the formation of the concept of an object under the influence of the meaning of a commonly used word, which provides the model of object cognition taking into consideration both similarities and differences of the objects under comparison;

3) fixing the chosen unit of nomination according to the new concept and differentiating semantic plans on the basis that the new meaning of the term has an autonomous orientation towards reality [3, 4-7].

All metaphorical terms can be divided according to the following classification:

1) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term containing the name of an animal (zoomorphic metaphors): alligator property, bear market, cockroach theory, killer bees, dog eat dog, eat your own dog food, rat trading, red herring, snake in the tunnel, stalking-horse bid, vulture fund [10; 9; 11];

2) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term containing the name of a plant: carrot equity, cherry-picking, daisy chain, flower bond, wallflower, jungle market, lemon laws, melon-cutting, seed capital [10; 9; 11];

3) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term connected with a certain mythological plot: act of God, good Samaritan, Santa Claus rally, dragon bonds, Leprechaun leader, Jekyll and Hyde, Sleeping Beauty, sinful stock, sin tax, vice fund, zombies [10; 9; 11];

4) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component presenting a certain analogy with family relations: aunt Millie, mother Hubbard clause, godfather offer, grandfather clause, Granny bonds [10; 9; 11];

5) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component representing a certain relation to a human being: ankle biter, arm's length transaction, belly up, barefoot pilgrim, blind broker, blind trust, face interest rate, face value [10; 9; 11];

6) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component containing a metaphor related to days of the week or months: black Monday, cyber Monday, Monday effect, January effect, black Friday, Marlboro Friday, October effect [10; 9; 11];

7) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by colour (colour metaphorical terms): blue list, green bond, green fund, green investing, greenwashing, green revolution, golden boot, golden hallo, golden share, golden handshakes, golden handcuffs [10; 9; 11];

8) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component containing a metaphor including the names of food products or certain culinary concepts: eating stock, financial menu, falling knife, macaroni defense, marzipan layer, plain vanilla, pork bellies, piechart, piecemeal option [10; 9; 11];

9) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by military metaphor: anchor capital, shotgun approach, golden parachute, gun jumping, radar alert, nominal anchor, non-revolver, short anchor [10; 9; 11];

10) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a metaphor including sport concepts: dumbbell, soccer mom indicator, hockey stick bidding, hurdle rate, job-hunting, headhunt [10; 9; 11];

11) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term representing geographical names or nationality (geographic and national metaphorical terms): Chinese Walls, Samurai bond, Geisha bond, Harakiri swap, Dutch disease, New-York interest [10; 9; 11];

12) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by an abstract notion representing certain physical features: elastic currency, deep pocket [10; 9; 11];

13) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by household metaphor: threshold price [10; 9; 11];

14) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by orientation metaphor: direct expenses, indirect expenses [10; 9; 11].

It should be noted that in the process of metaphorical terms distribution within the given classification, many metaphors were left out due to the difficulties of identifying the features that underlie metaphorization. On the other hand, metaphors can often simultaneously belong to several groups for the same reason. Besides, sometimes a metaphor, which is fixed in the language of science, may indicate a special national imagery, a fact of national history, culture, and even literature [5].

Therefore, metaphorical terms are the terms that are created in the result of metaphorical transfer of meaning, that is conveying the name from one subject to another based on similarity. In the language of economics, numerous metaphors from different spheres are used, however, the majority is comprised by zoomorphic metaphorical terms. Also, a large number of metaphorical terms are based on a certain national and cultural feature. But nowadays we can observe a tendency to internationalize metaphorical terms which reflect a purely national coloring as the language of economics is also a reflection of peculiarities of national mentality within an established cultural tradition. The types of metaphorical terms are distinguished according to parts of speech, the mode of addressee influencing, functional category, semantic peculiarities, time and space etc.

Despite numerous studies on this issue, a comprehensive classification of metaphorical terms is still a problem. In order to give a complete description, it is necessary to understand the areas that can serve as a source of their formation. Most of the researches carried out in this field prove that they are based on a metaphor that conveys an ordinary picture of the world, ideas that are no less complex and interesting than scientific ones. Such ideas reflect the experience of many generations and make it possible to learn more about the national mentality [6, 93-101].

Depending on the tasks of the research, metaphorical terms can be divided into different categories: phytomorphic, zoomorphic, anthropomorphic [4, 67-68]. The researchers also distinguish ontological metaphors, for example, the presentation of inanimate objects as living and structural metaphors, which make it possible to use concepts from one sphere to characterize another. It is worth noting that the main principle of selecting such categories in this work was taking into account the fact that the picture of the world created by a person is primarily anthropocentric: a person relies on his / her knowledge of relationship between an individual and the world. Having analyzed functional, lexical and semantic peculiarities of metaphorical terms on the material of English texts on economics from BBC News website, it was established that, in general, metaphorical terms can be divided into 5 categories:

1) naturemorphous metaphorical terms;

2) antropomorphous metaphorical terms;

3) sociomorphous metaphorical terms;

4) artifact metaphorical terms;

5) abstract metaphorical terms.

The use of the nature-morphic metaphor in the economic sphere is fully justified, because people are part of nature, nature surrounds and affects them. Animate and inanimate nature has served people as a certain model since ancient times, according to which people represent social, including their economic activity, which affects the linguistic picture of the economic sphere. That is, in this case the surrounding world influences the process of new metaphorical terms creation. So, the nature-morphic metaphor can be divided into the following subtypes:

1) metaphorical terms, the internal structure of which is represented by a comparative term including the name of an animal (zoomorphic metaphors):

Alligator spreads will result in the investor losing money or breaking even on the trade even if the market moves considerably in their favor. Be careful of which broker you use and be sure to check their options commission schedule (2).

Alligator spread belong to the group of naturemorphous metaphorical terms and, in particular, metaphorical terms the internal structure of which is represented by a comparative term including the name of an animal (alligator). The term is simple as it expresses one image. The internal structure of this metaphorical term is represented by a comparative term - alligator and an argument word - spread. The metaphor included in this term is substantival. The given metaphorical term is a nominative one as it is used to denote operations with options in which the commission costs exceed the potential profit. The translation is спред «алігатор» (опціонний спред з великими комісійними) [7, 291].

2) metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term containing the name of a plant:

Among those in suspense as Facebook prepares for its initial public offering (IPO) of shares later this month are the bean counters of California (2).

The metaphorical term bean counter belongs to the group of naturemorphous metaphorical terms and, in particular, metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term containing the name of a plant (bean). The given term is a complex one as it can be applied to denote accountants as well as specialists in statistics. According to the structure, it is simple, consisting of a comparative term - bean and an argument word - counter. The metaphor is substantival. The translation is бухгалтер, фахівець зі статистики (3).

The peculiarity of anthropomorphous metaphorical terms is represented by anthropomorphic metaphor, that is, the transfer of the names of parts of the human body (somatonyms), as well as the names of human feelings to inanimate objects. Due to it complicated economic notions represented by anthropomorphic metaphor become more comprehensible and clearer. Anthropomorphic metaphor includes the following subtypes:

1. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component presenting a certain analogy with family relations, for example, grandfather clause, junior bonds, widow-and-orphan stocks.

It would be one of the largest - and possibly the most controversial - in Canadian history both because American buy-out firms are in action and also because the “widows and orphans” stock is one of the most widely held in Canada (2).

The given antropomorphous metaphorical term belongs to the compound metaphorical terms as its external structure has two metaphorical components, conveying a certain analogy with family relations (widows and orphans). The external structure consists exclusively of the comparative term. Despite this fact, this metaphorical term belongs to the category of simple ones, because it conveys one notion as a substantival nominative term. The translation is фондова біржа, яка виплачує великі дивіденди й має невисокий рівень ризику (1).

2. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component representing a certain relation to a human being:

The extra 0.6 cents over face value it cost to produce a penny added up to C$11m a year but in the first year Canada will have to spend an estimated C$7,3m to redeem about six billion coins (2).

The term under analysis - face value - belongs to the group of antropomorphous metaphorical terms and contains in its structure a comparative term - face, possessing a certain analogy with a man, and an argument word - value. It is a complex term as it conveys two images. According to the structure, it belongs to substantival metaphorical terms, according to the function - to nominative ones. The translation is номінальна вартість: сума, яку зазначено на цінному папері чи монеті; сума, зазначена в полісі й яку необхідно виплатити у випадку смерті застрахованого, закінчення терміну страхування чи іншої зазначеної події [13].

Sociomorphous metaphorical terms are related to the fact that people and their social activity are strongly connected. Human social activity influences the surrounding world and people. Different constituent parts of the social sphere of life constantly interact with each other in human consciousness. Therefore, the economic world is also subconsciously modeled according to the principle of other spheres of human social activity. This category can be divided into:

1. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term connected with a certain mythological plot, for example, sinful stock, fallen angel, vice fund.

In the past, investors could only access fallen angel bonds through direct investment or diversified bond funds that own bonds across the entire high yield sector but in April 2012, investors gained a new way to own a portfolio made up entirely of fallen angels (2).

Thus, a sociomorphous metaphorical term fallen angel belongs to the metaphorical terms, the structure of which is connected with a certain mythological plot. Besides its external structure is comprised by a comparative term - fallen angel and an argument word - bond. The given unit is substantival compound nominative metaphorical term. It belongs to the compound metaphorical terms as it is used to denote bonds that bring high income but have lost the rating level that is attractive to investors, as well as companies whose securities have been downgraded. The translation is облігація, яка приносить високий дохід, але яка втратила рівень рейтингу, привабливий для інвесторів; компанія, рейтинг цінних паперів якої знизився (9).

2. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by military metaphor:

In some cases of camouflage compensation, the compensation is fully disclosed, but in such a way that it is very difficult for the average investor to decipher the true value of gross pay compensation (2).

Camouflage compensation belongs to the group of metaphorical terms and, in particular, metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by the military metaphor (camouflage). The given term is simple, substantival. Its external structure is comprised by a comparative term - camouflage and an argument word - compensation. According to the meaning, the analysed unit belongs to nominative metaphorical terms. The translation is компенсація, що надається співробітникам, які займають найвищі посади у компанії [9].

3. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a metaphor including sport concepts, for example, soccer mom indicator, headhunt, hurdle rate.

This was a popular soccer mom indicator during the bull market times that seems to have faded over the last two years as the stock market has tailed off (2).

In order to make an analysis, a metaphorical term soccer mom indicator, which belongs to the group of sociomorphous terms, was used. Having studied its external structure, we made a conclusion that, firstly, its base includes a metaphor conveying a sport notion; secondly, its external structure consists of two components: a comparative term - soccer mom and an argument word - indicator. This term is simple as it conveys one image, and includes a compound noun metaphor. It belongs to the group of nominative metaphorical terms. The translation is індикатор економічної активності, який відстає від ділового циклу [11, 381].

The basis of artifact metaphorical terms is comprised by a metaphor that relies on those objects and things that have been created by people. Therefore, it has the following subtypes:

1. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term representing geographical names or nationality (geographic and national metaphorical terms):

There was speculation that a DS-SNS coalition might assume power in both the Belgrade municipalities, or that the two parties could divide the two districts between them under a tacit gentleman's agreement (2).

The given metaphorical term belongs to the group of artifact metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a comparative term representing nationality. It is simple as it is used to denote one image. Gentleman's agreement is a nominative metaphorical term. The external structure is substantival and consists of a comparative term - gentleman and an argument word - agreement. The translation is «джентльменська»угода [10, 49].

2. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component containing a metaphor related to days of the week or months, for example, October effect, silver Thursday, Marlboro Friday.

Black Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday all occurred in October 1929, after which came the Great Depression but today the October effect is considered apsychological expectation rather than an actual phenomenon and most statistics go against the theory (2).

The term under analysis - October effect - belongs to the category of artifact metaphorical terms. It is a simple substantival term. Having examined its structure, we concluded that it includes a comparative term October, which also represents a metaphor in the form of a month, as well as an argument word - effect. This metaphorical term is nominative. Its Ukrainian equivalent is «жовтневий» ефект or зниження економічних показників на ринку у жовтні [11, 146].

3. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by a component containing a metaphor including names of food products or certain culinary concepts, for example, eating stock, marzipan layer, financial menu.

Bloated on risk, this was the year when investors got stomach ache and blamed it on eating too many rich stocks and with every sign of a slowing economy and every profit warning towards the end of the year came more selling (2).

Having analyzed the given metaphorical term, we made a conclusion that it is a simple artifact one. According to its external structure, it belongs to metaphorical terms that include a component - metaphor connected with the notions of culinary sphere (eating) and an argument word (stock).

The metaphor from its composition is adjectival. In Ukrainian it sounds as «поглинання чужого ланчу» (the situation when a trader, being unable to find buyers, is made to buy shares at his own expense) [8, 31].

4. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by household metaphor, for example, threshold price.

The change will see the property price threshold raised, so that the charge only applies on the value of a property above the 2m mark (2).

The metaphorical term threshold price is artifact and its external structure includes the component threshold. It is a comparative term and a household metaphor. Its external structure also includes an argument word price. This metaphorical term is simple, because it conveys only one image. It is a substantival nominative metaphorical term. Its Ukrainian equivalent is порогова ціна [7, 279].

The analysis of numerous English metaphorical terms based on the material of modern economic and socio-political periodicals allows us to single out the following subtypes of an abstract nature:

1. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by colour (colour metaphorical terms), for example, blue-sky law, gray market, pink sheets.

Each state has its own securities act, known colloquially as the “blue sky law”, which regulates both the offer and sale of securities as well as the registration and reporting requirements for broker-dealers and individual stock brokers doing business (both directly and indirectly) in the state, as well as investment advisers seeking to offer their investment advisory services in the state (1).

This metaphorical term belongs to the category of abstract metaphorical terms the external structure of which is represented by colour (blue) and is expressed by a compound metaphor. The term is simple as it conveys only one image and consists of a comparative term - blue-sky and an argument word - law. It is a simple nominative metaphorical term. The translation in Ukrainian is not metaphorical - американський закон, який регулює випуск та продаж акцій та цінних паперів [7, 36].

2. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by an abstract notion representing certain physical features, for example, elastic currency, deep pocket.

The creation of the Federal Reserve was meant to eliminate panics forever by supplying an elastic currency, i.e. unlimited bank notes to meet spikes in demand for cash and as the result the Fed failed at that job in the early 1930s for complex reasons, but between 1934 and 2007 America was largely spared large-scale panics thanks to deposit insurance and a central bank acting as lender of last resort (2).

The analysed metaphorical term elastic currency belongs to the metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by an abstract notion representing certain physical features. It is simple as it conveys only one image. Its structural peculiarities are comprised by a comparative term carrot and an argument word equity. The metaphor, which is part of it, is an adjective. This metaphorical term is nominative and is used to denote promotion shares. The Ukrainian equivalent is «гумові гроші», еластичний грошовий обіг [13].

3. Metaphorical terms, the external structure of which is represented by orientation metaphor, for example, direct expenses, indirect expenses.

Technical Services revenues were $11.1 million for 2012, compared to $12.6 million for 2011, a decrease of $1.5 million which is primarily due to lower project activity; direct expenses increased $0.1 million primarily due to labor cost increases and profit in this segment decreased by $1.6 million due to lower project activity and cost increases (2).

The metaphorical term direct expenses is simple according to its structure and contains an orientation metaphor including a comparative term direct and an argument word expenses. According to the meaning, direct expenses is also a simple term as it conveys one notion and belongs to the group of nominative metaphorical terms. The metaphor, which is a part of it, is adjectival. The Ukrainian translation is прямі витрати [16].



Conclusions and directions for further research in this area

economic metaphorical term english

The results of the research conducted allow us to make the conclusions listed below. The profound study of theoretical resources on the topic show that the majority of the scholars define the following types of metaphorical terms: according to the part of speech (substantival, adjectival, verbal); according to the level of influence on the addressee (epiphores and diaphons); according to their functional category (nominative, cognitive, figurative); according to the number of metaphorical image carrier units (simple, expanded); according to their semantic characteristics (by the main subject of comparison, by the additional subject of comparison, by the common features of the additional and main subjects of comparison); according to the integrity degree of metaphor internal form (figurative metaphors, i.e. generally accepted, and metaphors- neologisms, i.e. individual authorial, trite metaphors and dead metaphors); according to their functional characteristics (nominative metaphor, decorative / artistic metaphor, evaluative and expressive metaphor); according to the content (hyperbolic metaphor, litotes, personification, substantiation, objectification, symbol, allegory); according to time and space (ontological and oriented) etc.

Metaphorical process is a process that leads to obtaining new knowledge about the world by using names that have already existed in a particular language. A metaphorical term is a metaphor, that is, a transfer of names based on the association of similarity, which denotes a certain scientific concept and is used in a special field.

According to their structure, all metaphorical terms consist of a comparative term and an argument word. A metaphor, which is part of a metaphorical term, can be expressed by any part of speech, but most often it is a noun and a verb. The statistical analysis of the structural features of English metaphorical terms shows that 85% of them are nouns, 14% are verbs, and only 1% are comprised by adjectival metaphors.

Metaphorical terms perform mainly a nominative function that can be explained by the main reason for the formation of metaphorical terms, i.e. the absence of the need to create a completely new word to denote a new concept. Judging on their meaning, they can be simple, i. e. transfer one object, or complex, i.e. used to transfer two or more notions.

The conducted research enables us to divide all metaphorical terms of the economic discourse into the following groups: naturemorphous, antropomorphous, sociomorphous, artifact and abstract (Fig. 1). In its turn, each of the above-mentioned groups has its own subgroups based on certain signs and characteristics. The most dominant group is comprised by abstract (27%) and nature-morphic metaphorical terms (26%).

Fig. 1. The main groups of metaphorical terms (frequency of use in the English economic texts)

The main types and frequency of use of metaphorical terms in the language of economy have been also determined, depending on their meaning, polysemantic or monosemantic, and their functions - extended (32 %) or simple metaphors (68 %).

Moreover, it has been established that the process of forming categories of metaphorical terms is primarily influenced by human activity and human knowledge of the world. Economic metaphorical terms reflect the main spheres of human activity and its relationship with the surrounding world. In addition, metaphorical terms preserve all the signs and features of those elements that are included in their composition, although they are neologisms according to the nomination.

The results of this study are extremely relevant and promising, as they open up new opportunities for language learning in connection with human activities and society as a whole. In addition, the prospect of studying the peculiarities of English economic metaphorical terms rendering into Ukrainian, taking into consideration their functional, semantic and structural features highlighted in this research, is of special importance.



Bibliography

1. Азарова Л. Є., Троян Г. В. Непряма номінація осіб за метафоричним перенесенням «людина - людина». Збірник наукових праць Київського національного університету ім. Т. Шевченка «Мовні і концептуальні картини світу». Київ, 2011. Вип. 36. С. 8-15.

2. Дядюра Г. М. Функціональні параметри образності в науковому стилі (на матеріалі текстів природничих та технічних наук): автореф. дис. на здобуття наук. ступ. канд. філол. наук: 10.02.01. Київ, 2001. 22 с.

3. Кіс Т. Є. Еволюція художньої метафори: лінгвокультурний аспект: автореф. дис. на здобуття наук. ступ. канд. філол. наук: 10.02.01. Київ, 2001. 19 с.

4. Barnden J. A., Glasbey S. R., Lee M. G., & Wallington A. M. Varieties and directions of interdomain influence in metaphor. Metaphor and Symbol. 2004. Vol. 19. Issue 1. URL: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327868MS1901_1

5. Glucksberg S. Property attribution in metaphor comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 1997. P 50-67.

6. McCloskey D. N. The Rhetoric of Economics. 2009. URL: http://www.manoa.hawaii.edu/ctahr/aheed/Carl/ supplementary.

7. Коломойцев В. Є. Універсальний словник економічних термінів: інвестування, конкуренція, менеджмент, маркетинг, підприємництво. Київ: Молодь, 2000. 383 с.

8. Словник найменувань метафоричного походження у сфері економіки / укл. О. П. Винник; за ред. І. О. Піддуб- ного. Харків: ХНЕУ, 2006. 60 с.

9. Bizterms financial dictionary: English language. URL: http://www.bizterms.net/term/Macaroni-defense.html.

10. Dictionary of Business and Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 437 p.

11. Dictionary of Finance and Banking. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 437 p.

12. Merriam-Webster free online dictionary: English language. URL: http://www.merriam-webster.com.

13. TheFreeDictionary: American online dictionary and encyclopedia: English language. URL: http://financialdictionary.com.

Джерела ілюстративного матеріалу

1. Answers: a free financial online encyclopedia: English language. URL: http://www.answers.com.

2. BBC News. URL: http://www.bbc.co.uk/.

3. English Idioms. URL: http://www.usingenglish.com/idioms/



References

1. Azarova, L. Ye., Troian, H. V. (2011). Nepriama nominatsiia osib za metaforychnym perenesenniam “liudyna - liudyna” [Indirect nomination of persons by the metaphorical transfer “person - person”]. Zbirnyk naukovykhprats Kyivskoho natsionalnoho universytetu im. T. Shevchenka “Movni i kontseptualni kartyny svitu”, 36, 8-15 [in Ukrainian].

2. Diadiura, H. M. (2001). Funktsionalni parametry obraznosti v naukovomu styli (na materiali tekstiv pryrodnychykh ta tekhnichnykh nauk) [Functional parameters of imagery in a scientific style (on the material of texts of natural and technical sciences)]. (Avtoreferat dysertatsii kandydata filolohichnykh nauk). Kyiv [in Ukrainian].

3. Kis, T. Ye. (2001). Evoliutsiia khudozhnoi metafory: linhvokulturnyi aspect [Evolution of artistic metaphor: linguistic and cultural aspect]. (Avtoreferat dysertatsii kandydata filolohichnykh nauk). Kyiv [in Ukrainian].

4. Barnden, J. A., Glasbey, S. R., Lee, M. G., & Wallington, A. M. (2004). Varieties and directions of interdomain influence in metaphor. Metaphor and Symbol, 19 (1). Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327868MS1901_1

5. Glucksberg, S. (1997). Property attribution in metaphor comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 50-67.

6. McCloskey, D. N. (2009). The Rhetoric of Economics. Retrieved from: http://www.manoa.hawaii.edu/ctahr/aheed/Carl/ supplementary.

7. Kolomoitsev, V. Ye. (2000). Universalnyi slovnyk ekonomichnykh terminiv: investuvannia, konkurentsiia, menedzhment, marketynh, pidpryiemnytstvo [Universal dictionary of economic terms: investment, competition, management, marketing, entrepreneurship]. Kyiv: Molod Publishers [in Ukrainian].

8. Vynnyk, O. P., Piddubnyi, I. O. (2006). Slovnyk naimenuvan metaforychnoho pokhodzhennia u sferi ekonomiky [Dictionary of names of metaphoric origin in the field of economics]. Kharkiv: KHNUE [in Ukrainian].

9. Bizterms financial dictionary: English language. Retrieved from: http://www.bizterms.net/term/Macaroni-defense.html.

10. Dictionary of Business and Management (2005). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

11. Dictionary of Finance and Banking (2005). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

12. Merriam-Webster free online dictionary: English language. Retrieved from: http://www.merriam-webster.com.

13. The Free Dictionary: American online dictionary and encyclopedia: English language. Retrieved from: http://financialdictionary. com.

Sources of illustrative material

1. Answers: a free financial online encyclopedia: English language. Retrieved from: http://www.answers.com.

2. BBC News. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/.

3. English Idioms. Retrieved from: http://www.usingenglish.com/idioms/

Размещено на Allbest.ru

...