Online Battlefield: the Legal Landscape of Ukraine’s Internet Censorship Before and After the 2022 Russian Invasion
The investigates the regulatory framework for exercising Internet censorship in Ukraine in the context of the Russian-Ukrainian hybrid war. The regulation censorship in two areas - the freedom of opinion limitations and the freedom of information.
| Рубрика | Государство и право |
| Вид | статья |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 27.10.2023 |
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Online Battlefield: the Legal Landscape of Ukraine's Internet Censorship Before and After the 2022 Russian Invasion
Pavlo Burdiak, PhD student at the Doctoral School of Law and Political Sciences of the University of Szeged
The article investigates the regulatory framework for exercising Internet censorship in Ukraine in the context of the Russian-Ukrainian hybrid war. The regulation of Ukraine's Internet censorship is considered in two areas - the freedom of opinion limitations and the freedom of information limitations. Special attention is paid to identifying the peculiarities of Internet censorship regulation in Ukraine before and after the 2022 full-scale Russian invasion. In this scientific investigation, comparative analytical and law-in-context methods are employed.
The article reveals that before the 2022 full-scale Russian invasion, Ukrainian authorities were reinterpreting existing legislative provisions enshrined in the Criminal Code and the Law “On Sanctions” in order to limit the spread of pro-Russian opinions and information in the Ukrainian segment of the Internet. Following the Russian intervention in 2022, Ukraine amended its Criminal Code, adopted the new Law “On Media”, and declared martial law, allowing for more effective Internet censorship policies on the Russian front.
Keywords: Ukraine, Internet censorship, restriction of freedom of opinion, restriction of freedom of information, information confrontation, Russia-Ukraine hybrid war.
Протистояння в Інтернеті: нормативно-правове регулювання Інтернет-цензури в Україні до та після російської інтервенції 2022 року
У статті досліджуються нормативно-правові рамки регулювання Інтернет-цензури в Україні, спрямовані на протидію Російській Федерації в інформаційній сфері онлайн-простору. Мета статті - визначити юридичне підґрунтя, на основі якого відбувається імплементація онлайн-цензури в Україні в умовах російсько-української гібридної війни. Для досягнення вказаної мети вирішено два завдання: охарактеризовано законодавче регулювання Інтернет-цензури в Україні з 2014 до 2022 року, а також виокремлено зміни у правовому полі України щодо реалізації онлайн-цензури, спричинені повномасштабним вторгненням РФ у 2022 році. Регулювання онлайн-цензури в Україні розглянуто у двох площинах - обмеження свободи поглядів та обмеження свободи інформації, запроваджені у контексті реагування на російську агресію. У ході наукового дослідження застосовано метод порівняльного аналізу та метод права в контексті.
З'ясовано, що у період з 2014 до початку 2022 року українська влада реалізовувала політику онлайн-цензури в умовах інформаційного протиборства з РФ шляхом реінтерпретації наявних на той час нормативно-правових інструментів та механізмів. Так, обмеження на поширення проросійських висловлювань та інформації в українському сегменті Інтернету запроваджувалися на підставі наявних положень Кримінального Кодексу України та Закону України «Про санкції». Також визначено, що суттєві трансформації в українському правовому полі відбулися після повномасштабної інтервенції РФ у 2022 році. Наслідком російського вторгнення стали наступні кроки українських посадовців: внесення змін до Кримінального кодексу, якими забороняється виправдовувати чи заперечувати військову інтервенцію РФ в Україну; прийняття Закону «Про медіа», який передбачає обмеження на поширення російської пропаганди; оголошення правового режиму воєнного стану, внаслідок чого органи влади отримали формальні підстави для більшої дискреції при запровадженні обмежень щодо висловлювань та інформації в Інтернеті. Ці кроки створили додаткові можливості для більш ефективної імплементації Інте- рнет-цензури в Україні в умовах російської агресії.
Ключові слова: Україна, Інтернет-цензура, обмеження свободи поглядів, обмеження свободи інформації, інформаційне протиборство, російсько-українська гібридна війна.
Formulation of the scientific problem and its significance
Nowadays the Internet has turned into a common domain of confrontation between states, alongside conventional domains such as land, sea, air, and space. And the Russian-Ukrainian hybrid war found reflection not only in the conventional areas of interstate struggles but also in the online space. Ukraine and Russia are actively engaging in information confrontation on the Internet. Both states are using the Internet to disseminate their own messages and to limit access to narratives spread by their opponent (the latter practices are referred to as “Internet censorship”). The given article examines one of the aspect s of this topic - that is, the regulatory framework for Internet censorship in Ukraine in the context of countering Russian aggression.
It should be noted that the Russian dimension of Internet censorship in Ukraine is carried out on two fronts: the first one deals with prosecuting individuals for the dissemination of certain (pro- )Russian statements (i.e., restriction of freedom of opinion); the second front is predicated on restricting access to (pro-)Russian online resources (i.e., restriction of freedom of information). Special legal instruments have been developed for implementing both types of Internet censorship. At the same time, it should be underlined that these legal instruments for exercising Internet censorship in Ukraine have undergone substantial transformations since the beginning of the Russian aggression in 2014. The catalyst for these transformations was the 2022 full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine. Therefore, the question of the peculiarities of the legal framework for Ukraine's Interne t censorship in the context of the Russian invasion is particularly relevant and worthy of in-depth exploration.
Analysis of recent research on this problem
Some research on the topic of Ukraine's regulatory instruments and mechanisms for exercising Internet censorship amid Russian aggression has already been conducted. Liudmyla Opryshko, Vita Volodovska, and Maksym Dvorovyi analyzed a number of Ukrainian courts' rulings related to the dissemination of illegal statements on the Internet Опришко Л., Володовська В., Дворовий М. 2019. Свобода слова в інтернеті. Законодавчі ініціативи та практика розгляду кримінальних справ в Україні в 2014-2018 роках. Платформа прав людини. . Maksym Dvorovyi further investigated the application of sanctions for website blocking in Ukraine Дворовий, М. 2021. Санкції та блокування веб-сайтів в Україні: як непомітно відкрити скриньку Пандори. Лабораторія цифрової безпеки. . Digital Security Lab made publications about the developments in the field of online censorship in Ukraine after the 2022 Russian intervention Лабораторія цифрової безпеки. 2022. Свобода слова в Інтернеті: як Україна відповідає на російську агресію-2022?. Igor Rozkladai elaborated on the peculiarities of Ukraine's new media law that was adopted in December 2022 Розкладай І. 2023. Закон України про медіа: реформа, яка має стати успішною. Реанімаційний пакет реформ..
Formulation of the purpose, objectives, and methods of the article
The purpose of this article is to elaborate on the regulatory framework that has been used by Ukrainian authorities to implement Internet censorship in the context of the Russian-Ukrainian hybrid war. To this end, the article attempts to achieve two objectives. Firstly, to determine legal instruments for limiting freedom of opinion and information on the Internet that were employed by Ukrainian state bodies from the moment of Russian aggression against Ukraine in 2014 until the beginning of Russia's full -scale invasion in 2022. Secondly, to investigate the changes in the legal landscape of Ukraine's Internet ce nsorship aimed at countering the 2022 full-scale Russian invasion. To attain the defined objectives, comparative analytical and law-in-context methods are used. The comparative analytical method is employed to identify the peculiarities of Internet censorship in Ukraine before and after the 2022 Russian invasion. The law-in-context method adds a political dimension to the analysis by investigating the formation of Ukraine's Internet censorship policies through the lens of Russian aggression.
Presentation of the main material
In the pages to follow, we will examine in greater detail how the regulatory framework for Ukraine's Internet censorship was changing in the context of Russian aggression over the course of 2014-2022. The article starts with presenting the regulation of the freedom of opinion limitations, which is followed by an analysis of the freedom of information limitations in Ukraine.
If we look at the limitations of freedom of opinion in the Ukrainian segment of the Internet, it should be noted that from 2014 until 2022 there were no special legal instruments in Ukraine that would specifically regulate the statements made by Internet users in the context of Russian aggression.
However, practice shows that restrictions on online freedom of opinion in Ukraine were imposed as follows: firstly, Ukrainian law enforcement agencies would initiate proceedings against individuals who shared allegedly illegal online content. It should be emphasized that proceedings related to the Russian-Ukrainian hybrid war were usually initiated based on the existing provisions of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. Afterward, Ukrainian courts would consider the relevant criminal proceedings and make rulings on the legality of the statements/content disseminated by individuals on online platforms Мороз В. 2018. Аналітика: як порушували цифрові права у 2018 році в Україні. Інтернет свобода. .
Experts from the NGO “Human Rights Platform” thoroughly analyzed the judgments of Ukrainian courts in the proceedings against individuals who were disseminating allegedly illegal online content. Having examined over a hundred court judgments made by Ukrainian first-instance courts between 2014 and 2018, experts identified the provisions of the Criminal Code of Ukraine that were used to hold individuals criminally liable for disseminating unlawful information on the Internet. More specifically, the following provisions of the Criminal Code of Ukraine were referred to in the judgments over the period in question:
- 69 judgments cited Article 110 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Trespass against territorial integrity and inviolability of Ukraine);
- 54 judgments cited Article 109 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Actions aimed at forceful change or overthrow of the constitutional order or take-over of government);
- 4 judgments cited Article 161 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Violation of citizens' equality);
- 3 judgments cited Article 258-2 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Public incitement to terrorism);
- 3 judgments cited Article 295 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Calls to actions that pose a threat to the public order);
- 2 judgments cited Article 114-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Obstruction of the activities of the Armed Forces of Ukraine);
- 1 judgment cited Article 111 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (High treason);
- 1 judgment cited Article 436 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (Propaganda of war) Опришко Л., Володовська В., Дворовий, М. 2019. Свобода слова в інтернеті, ст. 43..
The subject matter of many online statements for which individuals were held criminally liable was related to expressions of support for the activities of the so-called “LNR” and “DPR” occupation administrations, as well as the inclusion of the southeastern Ukrainian territories into the Russian Federation Мороз В. 2018. Як порушували цифрові права у 2018 році в Україні..
After the full-scale Russian invasion on February 24, 2022, the Criminal Code of Ukraine was amended with the aim of providing more legal means to effectively counter the destructive influence of the aggressor state. To this end, the adoption of Law № 2110-IX “On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine on Strengthening Criminal Liability for the Production and Dissemination of Prohibited Information” introduced criminal liability for insulting the honor and dignity of servicemen (Article 435-1) and for justifying the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine (Article 436-2) Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України щодо посилення кримінальної відповідальності за виготовлення та поширення забороненої інформаційної продукції: Закон України від 03.03.2022 р. № 2110-IX. .
In particular, Article 435-1 established criminal liability for insulting the honor and dignity, making threats of murder, violence, destructing or damaging the property of Ukrainian servicemen who defend the country in the face of armed aggression of the Russian Federation, as well as the families of servicemen. The production and distribution of materials containing such insults or threats were also prohibited Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України щодо посилення кримінальної..., ibid..
Article 436-2 of the Criminal Code criminalized the justification, recognition as legitimate, or denial of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, and the glorification of its participants. The examples of prohibited statements include the following:
- presenting the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine as an internal civil conflict;
- justifying, recognizing as legitimate, and denying the temporary occupation of some Ukrainian territories;
- glorifying persons who carried out the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, which started in 2014.
The dissemination of the aforementioned statements via media is punishable by imprisonment for up to 5 years Ibid.. In this context, it should be emphasized that Ukrainian courts have repeatedly described social networks and the Internet as mass media in the meaning of paragraphs 47 and 55 of part 1 of Article 1 of the Law of Ukraine “On Telecommunications” and Article 22 of the Law of Ukraine “On Information” Див., наприклад, вирок у справі № 591/442/16-k.. That is to say, if the statements justifying, recognizing as legitimate, or denying the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine are made through the Internet, they could also fall under the scope of Article 436-2 of the Criminal Code.
The Criminal Code of Ukraine was further amended through the adoption of Law № 2108-IX “On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts Regarding the Establishment of Criminal Liability for Collaborative Activities”. This law introduced Article 111-1, paragraph 1 of which prohibited Ukrainian citizens from publicly denying the armed aggression against Ukraine, from publicly calling for cooperation with or support of decisions/actions of the aggressor state or its proxies, or denying the extension of Ukraine's state sovereignty to the temporarily occupied territories. It should be noted that ma king public statements stipulated above with the help of the Internet falls within the bounds of Article 111-1. Furthermore, individuals can be held criminally liable for engaging in informational activities in cooperation with the aggressor state. Informational activity is defined as the creation, collection, obtaining, storage, employment, and dissemination of relevant information Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України щодо встановлення кримінальної відповідаль-ності за колабораційну діяльність: Закон України від 03.03.2022 р. № 2108-IX. .
Based on the above, it should be stressed that the full-scale Russian aggression of 2022 prompted significant transformations of the Criminal Code of Ukraine aimed at more effective countering of Russia in the information domain.
Now let us consider the regulatory tools at the disposal of Ukrainian authorities that were used for limiting access to (pro-)Russian online resources. One of the major legal instruments for restricting access to (pro-)Russian online resources in Ukraine is th e Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions”. Ukrainian parliament (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine) adopted the Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions” on August 14, 2014. The official purpose of introducing the Law “On Sanctions” was to create mechanisms for an immediate and effective response to existing and potential threats to the national interests and national security of Ukraine, which includes repelling hostile actions and armed attacks carried out by other states Про санкції: Закон України від 14.08.2014р. № 1644-V11. . Given the context of the adoption of the law, one can state with a fair degree of certainty that the Law “On Sanctions” was designed to establish additional normative mechanisms for introducing restrictive measures to counter Russian aggression.
According to the Law “On Sanctions”, the imposition of sanctions must b e approved by decrees of the President of Ukraine, which put into effect relevant decisions of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine. In some cases, the approval of sanctions by the Ukrainian parliament is also necessary Про санкції: Закон України від 14.08.2014 р. № 1644-VII..
The Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions” defines 24 types of sanctions that can be introduced by state bodies. The list of available restrictive measures does not include the option of blocking online resources. However, in addition to the 24 clearly defined types of sanctions, the law also provides for the possibility of introducing “other sanctions” Ibid.. It is through the introduction of “other sanctions” that the Ukrainian authorities have repeatedly restricted access to (pro-)Russian online resources in the Ukrainian segment of the Internet Дворовий, М. 2021. Санкції та блокування веб-сайтів в Україні, ст. 5-6..
It should be noted that using the Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions” to block (pro -)Russian websites is controversial. In particular, many concerns have been raised regarding the vaguely formulated provisions of the law that are used to restrict access to websites, as well as the proportionality of the imposed restrictions Burdiak, P. 2021. Restricting freedom of information online in Ukraine within the Russian-Ukrainian hybrid war. Studium Europy Srodkowej i Wschodniej, 16: 109-130.. Yet despite these concerns, Ukrainian authorities have been actively using the Law “On Sanctions” for restricting (pro-)Russian online resources since 2017. During 2017-2021, a number of sanctions decrees were issued by the Presidents of Ukraine P. Poroshenko and V. Zelensky. More than 600 (pro-)Russian Internet resources were blocked by these decrees Ibid., ст. 11.. Among the most well-known Russian online resources that fell victim to Ukrain e's online censorship campaign were “Yandex”, “Mail.ru”, “VKontakte”, “Odnoklassniki”, “Doctor Web”, “Russia Today”, “Zvezda”, “TNT”, “RTR-Planeta”, “RenTV”, and others Про рішення Ради національної безпеки і оборони України від 28 квітня 2017 року «Про застосування персональних спеціальних економічних та інших обмежувальних заходів (санкцій)»: Указ Президента України від 15.05.2017 №133/2017. .
It is essential to point out that the practice of using the Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions” to block (pro-)Russian websites continued after the 2022 full-scale Russian invasion. On October 19, 2022, President of Ukraine V. Zelensky issued decree № 726/2022. This decree put into effect the relevant decision of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine and imposed sanctions on a number of (pro-)Russian websites for the first time since the beginning of the full-scale Russian invasion. It ordered to block or extend the blocking of websites of the so -called “LNR” and “DPR” occupation administrations (e.g. sovminlnr.ru, mvdlnr.ru) and their news resources (e.g. republic-tv.ru, novorossia.vision), as well as numerous Russian news websites (e.g. vgtrk.com, rtr-planeta.com, vesti.ru, sputniknews.com, etc.) Про рішення Ради національної безпеки і оборони України від 19 жовтня 2022 року «Про застосування та внесення змін до персональних спеціальних економічних та інших обмежувальних заходів (санкцій)»: Указ Президента України від 19.10.2022 №726/2022. .
An important change in the context of regulating the dissemination of information on the Internet came about with the adoption of the Law of Ukraine “On Media” on December 13, 2022 (it will enter into force on March 31, 2023) Про медіа: Закон України від 13.12.2022 р. № 2849-IX. . The development and adoption of the new media legislation were prompted by three main factors. Firstly, the full-scale intervention of the Russian Federation in Ukraine demonstrated that the Ukrainian legal landscape was lacking the means to effectively counteract the destructive information influences of the aggressor state disseminated through online media. Secondly, prior to the adoption of the Law “On Media”, Ukraine did not have adequate legal instruments to regulate online media. Thirdly, the adoption of the Law “On Media” was one of the requirements for Ukraine's accession to the European Union Розкладай І. 2023. Закон України про медіа: реформа, яка має стати успішною. Реанімаційний пакет реформ. .
Article 36 of the media law contains a list of general restrictions regarding the information that is prohibited from dissemination in online media. Such information includes justifying, promoting, and making calls for violent upheaval, toppling the Ukrainian constitutional order, unleashing or conducting aggressive war or military conflict, violating the territorial integrity of Ukraine, and liquidating Ukraine's independence. The law also forbids the spread of information containing the propaganda of the Russian totalitarian regime, armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, as well as symbols of the military invasion of the Russian totalitarian regime Про медіа: Закон України від 13.12.2022 р. № 2849-IX..
Section IX of the media law deserves special attention as it deals with the peculiarities of media regulation in the period of armed aggression. Article 119 outlines the types of content that can be restricted during armed aggression. These include, inter alia, the following:
- information that portrays armed aggression against Ukraine as an internal conflict, civil conflict, or civil war, if this results in inciting hostility or hatred, calls for violent upheaval, toppling the Ukrainian constitutional order, or violation of territorial integrity;
- false materials about armed aggression and actions of the aggressor state (occupant state), its officials, persons and organizations that are controlled by the aggressor state (occupant state), if this results in inciting hostility or hatred or calls for violent upheaval, toppling the Ukrainian constitutional order, or violation of territorial integrity Ibid..
The dissemination of information prohibited by the above-mentioned Article 36 and Article 119 in online media is considered a gross violation. It triggers the application of penalties such as a fine, double fine, or blocking of online media based on the court judgment Ibid..
The supervision and control over compliance with the media legislation are carried out by the N a- tional Council of Television and Radio Broadcasting of Ukraine. This body consists of eight persons, half of whom are appointed by the Ukrainian parliament, and the other half - by the President of Ukraine Ibid..
Last but not least, the introduction of martial law in Ukraine was another factor that changed the nature of Ukraine's Internet censorship after the 2022 full -scale Russian invasion. Martial law was declared on February 24, 2022, following the adoption of the relevant decree by the President of Ukraine, which was approved by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine Про введення воєнного стану в Україні: Указ Президента України від 24.02.2022 р. №64/2022.; Про затвердження Указу Президента України «Про введення воєнного стану в Україні»: Закон України від 24.02.2022 р. № 2102- IX. . Martial law was initially introduced for 30 days, but it was regularly extended later on. As of the time of writing this article, the latest extension of martial law in Ukraine took place on February 19, 2023, and its duration was extended for another 90 days Про продовження строку дії воєнного стану в Україні: Указ Президента України від 06.02.2023 р. № 58/2023.; Про затвердження Указу Президента України «Про продовження строку дії воєнного стану в Україні»: Закон України від 07.02.2023 р.. The introduction of martial law led to two main changes in Ukraine's policies on Internet censorship.
Firstly, the official introduction of martial law in the country provided formal grounds for state authorities to use greater discretion when imposing restrictions in the context of military aggression, including restrictions on freedom of opinion and freedom of information. At the end of February 2022, the Permanent Representation of Ukraine to the Council of Europe sent a Note verbale to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe substantiating a need to derogate from some of its obligations to im-
plement the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in connection with the introduction of martial law. Ukraine's derogation from its obligations under the Convention applies to, inter alia, Article 10 of the ECHR, which guarantees freedom of opinion and information Note verbale № 31011/32-017-3. 2022. .
Similarly, in early March 2022, the Permanent Mission of Ukraine to the United Nations notified the UN about the introduction of martial law in the country, which justified a deviation from part of Ukraine's obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). In this notification, Ukraine delineated a number of measures that it should take to counter Russian aggression, as well as the degree of deviation from its obligations under the ICCPR resulting from these measures. In particular, Ukraine specified that the measures to repel Russian invasion necessitate the derogation from Article 19 of the Covenant, which protects freedom of opinion and information Ukraine: Notification under Article 4 (3) No. 4132/28-110-17626, C.N.65.2022.TREATIES-IV.4. 2022.. These steps taken by Ukraine in the domestic and international arena enabled state authorities to impose broader restrictions on freedom of opinion and information.
Secondly, the introduction of martial law enabled Ukraine to use another mechanism for website blocking - restricting access to online resources through the National Centre for Operations and Technology Management of Telecommunications Networks (NTNOC) acting under the State Service of Special Communication and Information Protection of Ukraine. This works as follows: paragraph 11 of part 1 of Article 8 of the Law of Ukraine “On the Legal Regime of Martial Law” allows state bodies to regulate the activities of providers of electronic communication networks and/or services in the manner determined by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine Про правовий режим воєнного стану: Закон України від 12.05.2015 р. № 389-VIII. . Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 812 “On Certain Issues of Operational and Technical Management o f Telecommunications Networks in Emergency Situations, State of Emergency and Martial Law” regulates the activities of the NTNOC during the period of martial law. Paragraph 27 of the Resolution authorizes the NTNOC to issue orders regarding the operational and technical management of telecommunications networks, which are mandatory for network management centers Деякі питання оперативно-технічного управління телекомунікаційними мережами в умовах надзвичайних ситуацій, надзвичайного та воєнного стану: Постанова Кабінету міністрів України від 29.06.2004 р. № 812.. Taking into account that the scope of orders that can be issued by the NTNOC is not particularized in Ukrainian legislation, and considering that martial law provides state authorities with wider discretion in imposing restrictions, the NTNOC can arguably demand that providers of electronic communication networks and/or services restrict access to certain types of online resources Лабораторія цифрової безпеки. 2022. Блокування воєнного часу: провайдери мають обмежити доступ до 191 сайту. .
Since the introduction of martial law, the NTNOC has pursued an active policy of restricting access to (pro-)Russian online resources. In late February 2022, the NTNOC issued an order to block numerous autonomous systems (AS) НКЕК. 2022. НКЕК оприлюднює важливу інформацію до уваги всіх постачальників мереж та послуг щодо взаємодії з НЦУ. . According to the estimates of the Digital Security Lab, this order obliged providers to block over 48 million IP addresses in the Russian segment of the Internet Лабораторія цифрової безпеки. 2022. Свобода слова в Інтернеті: як Україна відповідає на російську агресію-2022?. The NTNOC also called on providers to block major Internet resources that enable the retransmission of banned channels associated with the aggressor state НКЕК. 2022. Наголошуємо на необхідності блокування основних інтернет-ресурсів, що забезпечують ретрансляцію каналів країни агресора.. In March 2022, a demand was made by the NTNOC to block another 96 addresses НКЕК. 2022. НКЕК просить постачальників електронних комунікаційних послуг негайно заблокувати адреси відповідно до розпорядження НЦУ від 22.03.2022. . In April 2022, the NTNOC issued an order to block websites that distribute Russian propaganda. 43 websites were affected by the blocking НКЕК. 2022. НКЕК просить постачальників електронних комунікаційних мереж та/або послуг негай-но заблокувати веб-ресурси відповідно до розпорядження НЦУ від 01.04.2022. . These are just a few examples of the NTNOC's activities when it comes to blocking (pro -)Russian websites amid the Russian invasion.
Conclusions
The formation of Ukraine's Internet censorship policies was heavily influenced by political and legal challenges induced by Russian aggression. It became clear that Ukraine was lacking sufficient legal instruments to adequately carry out Internet censorship for the purposes of protecting its national and information security during wartime. In the period from 2014 until the beginning of 2022, Ukraine did not have policies that would comprehensively regulate the procedure for blocking access to online resources or limiting certain types of online expressions in the Ukrainian segment of the Internet amid Russian aggression. Nevertheless, Ukrainian authorities developed a peculiar mechanism for introducing restrictions on access to certain Russian and pro-Russian online statements and resources by virtue of reinterpreting already available legal instruments. More specifically, existing provisions of the Criminal Code of Ukraine were used to regulate the activity of Internet users and restrict the spread of pro-Russian online statements. At the same time, the mechanism for applying sanctions under the Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions” was emp loyed to block (pro-)Russian websites. The latter sparked some controversies due to the fact that the sanctions mechanism for website blocking was vaguely formulated and often disproportionate. Despite being controversial, this sanctions mechanism remained unaltered and was used by Ukrainian authorities to restrict access to (pro- )Russian online resources both before and after the 2022 Russian invasion.
That said, the full-scale Russian invasion triggered a series of changes in the Ukrainian legislative field aimed at more effective countering of pro-Russian statements and information on the Internet. A number of amendments to the Criminal Code of Ukraine were adopted, which introduced penalties for justification, recognition as lawful, or denial of the Rus sian Federation's armed aggression against Ukraine. In addition, Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Law “On Media” that unequivocally prohibited the dissemination of information containing the propaganda of the Russian totalitarian regime or the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine. Furthermore, the discretion of the state bodies to impose restrictions on freedom of opinion and information in order to counter Russia in the information sphere was substantially expanded due to the introduction of martial law.
Hence, it can be concluded that the 2022 full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine induced significant transformations in the legal landscape of Ukraine's Internet censorship. Ukraine's regulatory fram e- work for imposing limitations on pro-Russian online statements and information became better suited for repelling Russia within the information confrontation in the Internet domain. Yet more attention needs to be paid to the process of blocking (pro-)Russian online resources via the Law of Ukraine “On Sanctions”, so as to ensure that the website blocking mechanism is clearly defined and proportionately applied.
internet censorship war information
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