Concept and classification of language policy

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State University of Trade and Economics

Concept and classification of language policy

Teslenko N.O.

Candidate of Philological Sciences

Associate Professor at the Department of Modern European Languages

Abstract

Language policy plays a significant role in society, influencing communication, identity, and cultural aspects. It encompasses the utilization, status, regulation, protection, and development of language. The objective of this article is to examine the concept of language policy and its classification in order to deepen our understanding of its essence and diversity.

The concept of language policy encompasses a broad range of actions, strategies, and regulations aimed at managing language-related issues. This includes the establishment of official language laws, recognition of language status, regulation of language usage, strategic language objectives, ensuring language equality, promoting multilingualism, addressing language security concerns, and preventing conflicts based on language.

The analysis of the concept of “language policy is based on the definitions provided by Ukrainian scholars, showcasing the level of development and understanding of this subject within Ukraine. Additionally, a new interpretation of the concept of “language policy1” is proposed to account for the current challenges and dynamics of the language landscape.

This article presents a classification framework for language policy, categorizing it based on types, levels, and types. The classification by type focuses on categorical features such as the State language, the legal status of the State language, and other languages. The classification by level considers the territorial application of language legislation and various aspects of its implementation. Special attention is given to the nuances of language policy during periods of martial law and post-war periods, with an emphasis on territorial differentiation due to the diverse set of factors influencing different regions. The classification by type of language policy highlights the goals of the state in implementing language policy across different spheres of human activity.

In summary, this article aims to explore the concept and classification of language policy, considering its various forms and levels of implementation.

Key words: public administration, classification of language policy, language policy, types of language policy, levels of language policy, kinds of language policy.

Поняття та класифікація мовної політики

language policy martial law

Мовна політика відіграє важливу роль у суспільстві, впливаючи на комунікацію, ідентичність та культурні аспекти. Вона стосується використання мови, її статусу, регулювання, захисту та розвитку. У статті розглянуто поняття мовної політики та її класифікація для поглиблення розуміння сутності та різноманітності цього явища.

Поняття мовної політики охоплює широкий спектр дій, стратегій і положень, спрямованих на управління мовними питаннями. Це включає прийняття офіційних мовних законів, визнання статусу мови, регулювання мовного режиму, стратегічних завдань мовної політики, забезпечення мовної рівноправності та розвитку багатомовності, усвідомлення мовної безпеки й запобігання конфліктам на мовному ґрунті.

Поняття «мовна політика» проаналізовано на основі дефініцій українських науковців, продемонстровано рівень розробленості цього питання в Україні та засад, які покладаються в основу цього поняття. Крім того, запропоновано нове трактування поняття «мовна політика», що враховує сучасні виклики й динаміку мовного середовища.

У статті структуровано класифікацію мовної політики. Запропоновано класифікацію мовної політики за видами, рівнями й типами. Класифікація мовної політики за видами здійснена на основі категоріальних ознак - державна мова, нормативно-правові статуси державної та інших мов. Визначення рівнів мовної політики пов'язано з територією поширення дії мовного законодавства та аспектами його реалізації. Звернена увага на особливості мовної політики в умовах воєнного стану та повоєнного періоду з акцентом на територіальну диференціацію через різноманіття чинників, які впливають на різні регіони. Класифікація за типами мовної політики базується на визначенні цілей держави у реалізації мовної політики за сферами життєдіяльності людей. Загалом, стаття ставить за мету дослідження поняття та класифікації мовної політики за різними формами і рівнями її реалізації.

Ключові слова: державне управління, класифікація мовної політики, мовна політика, види мовної політики, рівні мовної політики, типи мовної політики.

Formulation of the problem in general

The issue of defining and classifying language policy stems from the inherent ambiguity of the concept and the variations in classification approaches. Language policy encompasses the regulation of language usage, the recognition of official languages, and the level of protection they receive. However, arriving at an exact definition for this term proves challenging. Similarly, the classification of language policy presents difficulties due to the diverse range of approaches and categories employed. The dependence of language policy on political, socio-cultural, and historical contexts further hinders the establishment of universally applicable understandings and recommendations. Addressing these challenges necessitates the clarification of terminology, the systematization of approaches, and extensive research into the factors influencing language policy.

Analysis of recent research and publications

Recent publications indicate that researchers are investigating various aspects of language policy, including the regulation of language use and its societal and governmental impact. Scholars such as Yu. Kuts and O. Sergeyeva argue for the classification of language policy as a type of state policy, highlighting the wide range of officially defined goals and characteristics associated with the state language policy of a country [8, p. 16]. In the work of N. Hryshyna and M. Bihari, the field of state language policy is further developed by clarifying concepts such as “state language policy”, “state regulation of language issues”ЃCand “mechanisms of formation and implementation of language policy” [5, p. 86]. Ukrainian linguists, drawing on global experiences, justify the use of concepts such as “language planning”, “language corpus”, “native language”, “state language”, “official language”, as well as introducing terms like “language of the titular nation”, “non-titular language”, “minority language”, “minority language”, and “unified language space” [2]. Ukrainian scholars also examine the concepts employed in international language policy discourse, including “language policy”, “language planning”, “language construction”, “language management”, “language marketing”, “state and official languages”, “languages of national minorities”, and “regional or minority languages”. They analyze the essence of these concepts and explore their relationship to the potential implementation within the Ukrainian context of state administration [11, p. 53].

The implementation of state language policy involves employing various means, methods, strategies, and tools to achieve the objectives in the language policy domain. In Ukraine, the state language also serves as a tool for state administration, aiding in the identification of the population and the pursuit of state interests [8, p. 16]. Consequently, it is essential to ensure objectivity, systematicity, and coherence in all language policy mechanisms, supported by scientific justification. Therefore, the necessity of state regulation of language issues, legislative consolidation of the state language, and the implementation of mechanisms at all levels of governance has been acknowledged [5, p. 86].

Researchers give special attention to the language and political context, which influences the development of a language policy that promotes the effective functioning of the language across various domains of use. Regulation within the framework of state language policy is one of the functions of the state since language is utilized in business, culture, science, and other activities [8, p. 16]. The possibility and appropriateness of employing modern tools and technologies, such as public relations (PR), social advertising, language marketing, and others [5, p. 86], are becoming more familiar to ordinary language users. However, their implementation requires systematic monitoring to obtain feedback on their effectiveness.

Researchers are examining the European experience in regulating language use. The European Union has pursued the development of languages by promoting multilingualism and supporting the languages of national minorities [14, p. 318]. Yu. Makarets analyzed various models of language organization and language status in Europe to explore the possibilities of implementing European practices in language regulation in Ukraine. Within the European context, the issue of national language policy was considered, which is based on the principles of monolingual- ism or bilingualism [11, p. 41]. One concept for implementing language policy in European countries is based on J. Fishman's “great tradition”, which involves the existence of cultural attributes such as law, government, religion, and history that contribute to the integration of citizens into a unified “nation”, with the official language serving as the primary means of self-expression [8, p. 19]. However, Yu. Makarets argues that proposals for official multilingualism lack an objective basis in Ukraine, which is a unitary multi-ethnic state with Ukrainians as the indigenous ethnic group, and considers them as political manipulation in the language issue [11, p. 41].

One of the goals of language policy is to prevent and resolve language issues. Therefore, language policy is a combination of ideological principles and practical measures implemented through political and administrative mechanisms, aimed at guiding language development in the desired direction. In this context, Yu. Makarets considers language security, conducting an analysis of the key characteristics of Ukraine's state language policy during the period of independence. It was concluded that ensuring the linguistic interests of society is recognized as a crucial aspectof the state's national security [12, p. 53].

Highlighting is not previously solved parts of the general problem

In the academic tradition of Ukraine, there is a lack of a clear definition for the types and forms of language policy. A significant unresolved aspect of this issue is the absence of a unified and comprehensive definition of language policy. Depending on the context and research approach, the term “language policy” can be interpreted differently. Some scholars perceive language policy as a collection of actions aimed at regulating language usage in society, encompassing legislation and regulations. Other approaches emphasize the sociocultural and identity dimensions, viewing language policy as a process that shapes language practices and the relationships among different language communities. Additionally, there is a challenge in developing classification models for language policy that adequately consider various contexts and aspects. It is necessary to establish a more systematic approach to the study and analysis of language policy in order to avoid fragmentation and contradictions within this research field.

The purpose of the article

The goal of this article is to bring clarity to the concepts and provide a classification of language policy, thereby enhancing the comprehension and definition of this phenomenon. The article primarily focuses on analyzing various approaches to defining “language policy” and establishing its types, levels, and categories.

Presenting main material. Currently, there is a range of interpretations for the term “language policy”, encompassing various perspectives, from metalinguistic reflections and ideological principles to concrete measures employed by the state or social institutions to regulate language dynamics within society.

The term “politics” originates from the Greek word “no“ьітікв”ЃCwhich denotes self-management. According to the explanatory dictionary edited by V. Busela, “politics” is defined as the overall direction and nature of state activity, a particular class or political party, the guiding activity of the state or a political party within a specific field and timeframe, and the events and issues within domestic and international social life [3, p. 1035].

In the scientific literature, the definition of “language policy” lacks a unified approach, necessitating an examination of its essence and the formulation of a definition that accurately reflects the current state of social relations, particularly in the realm of language policy. Table 1 presents an analysis of various definitions of language policy.

From the analysis, it is evident that the majority of scientists present various definitions of language policy. They commonly define the state as the primary actor in language policy and emphasize its regulatory function and capacity for influence (B. Azhniuk, T. Kovaleva). Additionally, they highlight different aspects such as language development (Yu. Makarets, B. Azhniuk), the regulation of language processes (T. Kovaleva), types of measures (Y. Makarets), and the necessity to resolve language conflicts (N. Popovych, Yu. Makarets).

One definition considers language policy as a reflection of the state's stance towards language (N. Popovych). However, we believe that this approach is influenced by individuals' empathetic mechanisms reacting to state actions, and may not be suitable for accurately delineating the essence of language policy.

Another perspective suggests understanding language policy through ethnopolitics (Yu. Kuts, O. Sergeyeva), which shifts the focus to international relations. In our view, this does not provide a clear understanding of the state's role as a significant factor in determining the strategic direction of language use, not only within ethnic communities but also within the entire state. It is important to note that ethnic communities and native speakers are distinct concepts describing groups of people. People may belong to a certain ethnic community without being speakers of the group's language, and conversely, individuals not affiliated with a particular ethnic community may utilize its language.

Considering the insights from researchers and the analysis of existing definitions, there are grounds for formulating a new definition of the concept of “language policy”.

We consider that the definition of language policy should encompass the following elements: 1) the state's involvement in regulating language relationships; 2) regulatory measures employed; 3) the strategic aspect; and 4) the intended objective. Taking these factors into account, we propose the following definition: language policy refers to a collection of strategies that govern language relationships within a state, with the goal of influencing public life. It encompasses a range of political, legal, administrative, and educational measures aimed at fostering language development, facilitating changes or preservation in the language landscape, expanding language usage domains, achieving language balance, and resolving language conflicts.

І. Lopushynskyy introduces another type of language policy known as the policy of non-interference or the “absence of language policy” [9, p. 21]. However, we believe this creates an inconsistency because even the existence of language legislation indicates that the state is declaring a specific direction in language policy.

Table 1. Analysis of the definition of “language policy”

In the realm of scientific literature, one can find a type of language policy referred to as language pluralism. While it shares some similarities with other types such as multilingualism and linguistic integration, it is practically challenging to implement, especially in multilingual countries that face significant difficulties due to linguistic, cultural, and ethnic conflicts [7, p. 57-58]. Hence, for the classification and implementation of language policy types, it is more appropriate to prioritize state regulation rather than relying solely on the autonomous or sporadic functioning of languages.

The consideration of regional characteristics is crucial in the formation of language policy, particularly in safeguarding the rights of national minorities within a society's language dynamics. Ukraine, being a heterogeneous state with diverse ethnic and linguistic compositions, experiences differences among ethnic groups and their languages. Analyzing regional features enables the identification of variations in ethnic, linguistic, religious, confessional, geopolitical, and political-ideological orientations, as well as the priority types of identity in specific regions. This serves as a basis for developing and implementing a state language policy aimed at legally protecting national minorities and their languages.

B. Azhnyuk observed that language policy in Ukraine was previously subjected to an “assimila- tionist colonial policy” [1, p. 26]. He emphasizes that attempts to use the languages of national minorities as indicators of regional language boundaries, as pursued by the government and certain regions in Ukraine, result in social isolation based on national-linguistic characteristics. This exclusion of individual regions or micro-regions from the broader Ukrainian context ultimately paves the way for entities like so-called “Donetsk People's Republic (DPR)” and “Luhansk People's Republic (LPR)” and similar associations to emerge [1, p. 37].

It is important to acknowledge that the following conditions were relevant for Ukraine prior to the onset of Russia's invasion in 2022. Currently, there is an observed process of Ukrainian society's consolidation. Historian Y Hrytsak states that the Ukrainian language today represents the language of freedom, while the Russian language in Ukraine also carries the connotation of freedom. However, in Russia, the Russian language is associated with the language of V. Putin [4]. This indicates a shift in the perception of the language situation in Ukraine. The Ukrainian language is gaining prominence among the Russianspeaking population, signifying their connection to a free Ukraine. This process entails the learning and everyday use of the Ukrainian language. The consolidation of society during the war has redirected the focus of language policy from regional characteristics to a unified state policy of mono- lingualism with a tolerant attitude towards the Russian language.

Language policy is influenced by various factors, and understanding its types and variations is crucial for analysis. By referring to the type of language policy, we mean a specific approach or method of regulating language usage within a particular society or state. I. Lopushynskyy identifies types of language policy based on the language situation, categorizing the state as monolingual, bilingual, or multilingual [9, p. 77]. In our view, the concept of “language situation” arises from the state's chosen direction regarding the official language and minority languages. Consequently, we can propose a classification of language policy types based on the following characteristics of the language situation: language status, support for linguistic diversity, interests of national minorities, and language integration. The following types can be delineated from these characteristics:

- Monolingualism. This type of language policy focuses on protecting the national language [10, p. 21]. It entails the use of a single language in state institutions, government communications, and education. In a monolingual context, attention is concentrated on one language and its designated spheres of application. Other languages may face restrictions in their usage or even be prohibited in official domains.

- Multilingualism. This approach promotes the equal status of multiple languages within society. These languages are officially recognized, utilized in government institutions, and emphasized as important. Other languages also receive legal protection and are used in specific areas of life.

- Language integration. Language integration aims to regulate the linguistic environment by fostering the use of both official and minority languages across various domains. This can be achieved through industry-based quotas, while also encouraging conscious support for the language of the former colonial power. In some cases, conditions for “positive discrimination” [10, p. 21] may be encouraged to ensure the inclusion and advancement of minority languages.

Language policy can be implemented at various levels of territorial management and can serve as both an independent element in the governance system and a component of communication strategies, regulatory activities, and development programs of governments or institutions. Four levels can be distinguished:

- International level. This level of language policy involves political decisions, agreements, and cooperation between countries regarding language or languages. It encompasses various initiatives and agreements aimed at regulating language usage in international relations, communication, and cooperation among nations. The international level of language policy includes a state's position on implementing international documents and its interaction with international language organizations to learn from experiences, promote state language policies, and engage in language monitoring.

- National (State) level. At this level, language policy refers to political decisions related to language functioning, rights, and guarantees established at the national level to regulate language or languages used throughout the country. However, the implementation of language policy may have local variations. The state's language policy is linked to the strategic directions put forth by the state for society in its own interests.

- Regional level. The regional language policy pertains to broad administrative units such as regions or oblasts. It addresses a significant number of territories organized based on administrative principles of governance. The policy is applicable to regional governments that possess specific conditions for implementing language policy.

- Territorial level. This level extends to smaller administrative units such as districts and communities. Territories at this level can possess distinct characteristics, such as post-conflict areas or regions influenced by assimilation policies. These characteristics are not necessarily connected to administrative divisions but are dependent on factors such as military or post-war status, levels of damage, ethnic composition, attachment levels, and more. This understanding of the “language situation” encompasses a broad context.

Such an understanding of the levels of language policy can be valuable for comprehending the heterogeneity of territories in Ukraine. This heterogeneity is associated not only with ethnic and cultural features but also with the social and economic conditions of specific regions. For instance, during the Russian-Ukrainian war conflict territories, post-conflict territories, and areas where peaceful life partially persisted can be observed. Each of these territories, including those affected by military conflicts or Russian assimilation policies, will exhibit different characteristics. Recognizing the diversification of language policy, its influences, and the possibilities for implementation is a necessary condition for its effectiveness. Each area will require distinct approaches to implementing language policy.

The status of the Ukrainian language as a state language is determined by Article 10 of the Constitution of Ukraine. In 2010, the President of Ukraine issued a Decree on the Concept of State Language Policy, and in 2019, the law on ensuring the functioning of the Ukrainian language as a state language was adopted. These documents regulate various aspects of people's lives.

Based on the goals set by the state in language policy, we can identify different kinds of language policy. These include:

Normative and legal policy. This kind of policy establishes the legal framework and norms related to language dimensions and linguistic rights of citizens. It includes the adoption of official language policies, language laws, rules and regulations governing language use in official domains, education, media, and other areas of activity.

Educational policy. This policy focuses on regulating language use in the educational sphere, such as the language of instruction, multilingual education, the development of educational programs, maintaining linguistic balance, and enhancing language competencies of students.

Administrative policy. This kind of policy pertains to language use in state and administrative spheres. It may include requirements regarding the language of communication in government bodies, the language of documents, and ensuring the language rights of citizens in their interactions with the administration.

Cultural policy. This policy aims to support and develop cultural heritage and linguistic identity. It can involve financial support for cultural projects, promotion of language-related activities and events, and preservation and restoration of language culture.

Media policy. This policy focuses on regulating language use in the media. It may be based on principles of linguistic balance or asymmetry, include support for minority languages in media, and involve the development of language services and resources.

It is worth noting that the last type, media policy, was not well-defined in the documents presented and requires a modern understanding of the media landscape. Today, the media plays a significant role in shaping social, political, and other attitudes in civil society. In 2019, the Strategy for the Popularization of the Ukrainian Language until 2030, titled “Strong Language- Successful State” [13], was approved, with considerable emphasis on the educational and media spheres. This strategy is implemented through a targeted national and cultural program to ensure the comprehensive development and functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language in all areas of public life until 2030, as approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine in 2021 [6].

These different types of language policies interact and can be employed together based on the goals and needs of society. The classification of language policy kinds is determined by the sphere of social activity and the goals set by the state.

Conclusions

The study of language policy plays a crucial role in comprehending how language influences society and the dynamics between different groups of people. Defining and classifying language policy has proven to be challenging due to the multitude of approaches and contexts involved. Through the analysis of various concepts and approaches, a comprehensive definition of language policy has been formulated, taking into account its multifaceted aspects. These created classifications aid in uncovering diverse contexts and scales of language policy, contributing to the consolidation of knowledge in this field.

Understanding the nature and impact of language policy is essential for developing effective language strategies that align with the specific language situation. Research in this area holds significance in the construction of a fair and inclusive society, where diverse groups of people can coexist and interact on the basis of equality and respect. By delving into the study of language policy, we gain insights that can guide the development of policies and practices fostering linguistic harmony and social cohesion.

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