Cultural – and self-identification in African American women's poetry: Maya Angelou, Sonia Sanchez, Audre Lorde

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

Cultural - and self-identification in African American women's poetry: Maya Angelou, Sonia Sanchez, Audre Lorde

The question of identity has been an eternal focus of literature. Literary works suggest answers to this question either implicitly or explicitly. J. Culler affirms that readers of fiction may follow «the fortunes of characters as they define themselves and are defined by various combinations of their past» [4, 106]. The crucial issue emerges when the personage's self is assessed at the counterpoint of two options: as something given, or as something created. In other words, personal identification is generated from existential dilemmas any individual faces, as well as social forces that are imposed on characters and thus influence their choices concerning their identities. A combination of the given and the acquired traits reinforces the inner core of a personality and presents the self as «determined by its origin and social attributes» [4, 104, 106]. Besides, there is a necessity for any person to be open to constant changes resulting from being socialized within a particular community. This involves acquiring knowledge and skills that would enable one to become conscious of the existing communal preferences, alternatives, prejudices, biases, and value sets in all spheres of a particular social environment.

Literature offers an infinite variety of models in which identity is formed. Recent theories about gender, race, and sexuality serve to testify to the fact that fiction is a powerful means of identity reflection and formation. The latter becomes possible through encounters (conforming to, or struggling against) with the surrounding world. For African American authors, identity has always been at issue since the surrounding world brings a number of challenges facing writers of black origin. For centuries American history has witnessed attempts at racial segregation to the point of appearing to be «white,» the role of blacks limited and reduced to otherness [5, 149]. African Americans were not allowed to enter the realm of the «word,» in the majority of cases being prohibited from conducting any writing activities. Consequently, they were not considered a part of American literary history. Moreover, their experience did not find its reflection directly, but via a «white» mediator. This led to further distortion of African American history and literature. Since the emergence of early slave writers, the narrative of freedom and finding one's voice has gained priority among non-white authors. In the 20^th century this idea evoked an urgent need to give it a proper shape and a clearly defined identity that would challenge existing stereotypes.

Contemporary American literary discourse is marked by an increasing interest in the multicultural aspects of the literary process. Nowadays, the role of various ethnic cultures and traditions in defining the national literary scope cannot be considered in isolation from the mainstream literary expression. The whole of US history is being reconsidered from the perspective of the given multiethnic nature ofthe American community. Natalia Vyssotska argues that the need to reinvent American national identity model originates from the changes in the sociocultural mapping of the country. Academic and educational circles witness discussions concerning a shift in national self-portrait, cultural wars, and the implications of multicultural sensibility for literary studies. Undoubtedly, a different philosophical perspective will affect both spiritual endeavors and cultural institutions [7, 26-268].

Furthermore, the once widely accepted metaphor for America as a «melting pot» of nations, which stood for racial and social assimilation of immigrants, has become inadequate for a full representation of American civilization. It has given way to the idea of a mosaic, which emphasizes variety and differences between those cultures that are united within a single concept of the American nation. As stated by Manohar Samuel, «There is now more than ever before a felt need for more space for diverse cultural voices and perspectives, and a stress on the value of diversity» [15]. American literature, as one of the brightest manifestations of the cultural landscape of the country, welcomes mutual sharing and exchange of myths, symbols, imagery, etc., that promote enrichment of the aesthetic potential of literary experience in general.

Under such circumstances, ethnic voice becomes distinct in assuming a number of manifestations, such as condemnation of any kind of inequality and unfairness, and celebration of native tradition as well as both material and spiritual cultures. More importantly, the voice calls for ethnic selfawareness, dignity and tolerance as well as readiness to communicate, cooperate, and share in human values. In connection with this, the opinion of Audre Lorde becomes significant. She writes, «In our work and in our living, we must recognize that difference is a reason for celebration and growth, rather than a reason for destruction […]. We need to use these differences in constructive way, creative way, rather than in ways to justify our destroying each other» [qtd. in 6, 86].

The objective of the paper is to focus on the literary manifestations of women writers' self-identification in terms of their multicultural, racial and gender awareness, and to identify the stylistic and rhetorical means used for the purpose. The issue appears to be crucial as multicultural identification defined here refers to both the American nation as a whole and to its ethnic components, as well as to individuals. The corpus of the experimental material in the present article includes poetic and essayistic pieces by Maya Angelou, Sonia Sanchez, and Audre Lorde. In the paper, the interpretive analysis appeared to be the most productive method of research.

The poetry of African American women is marked by ethnic, national and gender factors that all deserve close scrutiny. A combination of those factors provides a woman writer with a possibility of viewing her own personality and relationships within a community as a tool of understanding the most vital social issues. Besides, according to a number of feminist critics, Elaine Showalter including, it is impossible to view women's literature outside the dominant patriarchal (male) context. The scholar claims that «the concept of a woman's text in the wild zone is a playful abstraction: in reality to which we must address ourselves as critics, women's writing is a `double-voiced discourse' that always embodies the social, literary, and cultural heritage of both the muted and the dominant» [Showalter, qtd. in 1, 160].

As Showalter argues, engaging the notion of a dialogue, or the Bakhtinian `double-voiced' discourse, appears to be productive. This strategy enables literary critics to single out «the otherness» of women writing compared to the mainstream tendencies in culture and society. Accepting the polyphonic nature of female literature makes it possible to consider creativity as a mixture of various discourses and narrative techniques. The critic further affirms: «A Black American woman poet, for example, would have her literary identity formed by the dominant (white male) culture, and by a muted black culture. She would be affected by both sexual and racial politics in a combination unique to her case» [Showalter, qtd. in 1, 160]. Thus, a piece of framework is created, within which the female / male opposition, in the physical, mental, and spiritual sense, becomes crucial for finding means of self-identification and selfawareness. This argument may be illustrated by Sonia Sanchez's «Poem at Thirty» [14]. The poem features the characters of a father and a husband, both African American, and therefore playing an essential role in the physical and mental life of a woman. Now that the lyrical «I» has turned thirty, she finally overcomes her fears (that of night and her dependence on men). From now on it is the heroine herself that will decide how to perceive her own personality, associate with the people within their community, select a lifestyle and behavioral patterns, etc.:

line 1 it is midnight

no magical bewitching hour for me i know only that line 5 i am here waiting remembering that once as a child i walked two miles in my sleep. line 10 did i know then where I was going? traveling. i'm always traveling. line 15 i want to tell you about me about nights on a brown couch when i wrapped my

line 20 bones in lint and refused to move. no one touches me anymore. father do not line 25 send me out

among strangers. you you black man stretching scraping line 30 the mold from your body. here is my hand. i am not afraid of the night.

(Sanchez, «Poem at Thirty»)

Lines 22-32 exemplify the idea that the lyrical «I» does not accept any patriarchal authority from the outside; she is the authority herself. In such a way the character expresses her openness to experience and feeling what she desires. Sanchez's heroine is thus ready to discard everything that interferes with her personal choices and in such a way strives for her independent future. The color palette of the poem («black», «brown» /lines 18, 27/) and contextually related «midnight», «nights», «bewitching» /lines 1, 2, 32/), in conjunction with the negatives («do not», «not afraid», «no one» /lines 22, 24, 31/), creates a gloomy mood, on the one hand, though, on the other one, it implies that nothing can prevent the heroine from finding her identity.

Due to its short lines, elements of a narrative, and numerous repetitions that are so frequent in oral taletelling Sonia Sanchez's poem is evocative of a jazz tune, which suggests that specific syntactical structures of the poem tend to reflect the ethno-cultural mapping of the world by a black community, as well as a way of creating traditional imagery. As advocated by Nadiia Vorobei, a Ukrainian scholar researching textual markers of traditional music genres (jazz, rap, and blues), the creativity of African American authors demonstrates parallels between rhythmic and syntactic structure of poetry, on the one hand, and the rhythmic composition of the music trends, on the other hand [8, 14]. The music pattern observed in the poem by Sanchez is another linking chord between African American poetry and a particular ethnic community.

The universal male / female opposition suggests a model of society which is either male - or female - centered. No matter how vital it may be, becoming independent of male power does not seem to be the only way of finding one's own self for a woman. Personal liberation needs time, effort, and a desire to develop high self-esteem. Regarding these ideas, in her essay «In all ways a Woman» Maya Angelou argues that it is high time a woman stopped considering herself an imperfect replica of a man and started to resist treating herself a «lesser version of her male counterpart» [10]. To support the point, the author makes a list of gender-marked lexemes («poetess», «Negress», «rectoress» etc.), which in her opinion violate a proper estimation of a female personality. Angelou writes, «She is not a sculptress, poetess, authoress, Jewess, Negress, or even (now rare) in university parlance a rectoress. If she is the thing, then for her own sense of self and for the education of the ill-informed she must insist with rectitude in being the thing and in being called the thing» [10]. Hence, any woman is to start with her own selfperception, judgments and opinions as well as ability to be flexible in viewpoints, attitudes, behavioural modes, and evaluations, etc. It is up to women writers themselves to create the poetry that may help them to find their place in the society where «women have evolved distinctive values within a male-dominated society» [2, 413]. The utmost purpose is to become a phenomenal woman, as the title of Angelou's work suggests - «In All Ways a Woman.» Certainly, it is not an easy task, concludes the author, but it is worth aspiring to, «The struggle for equality continues unabated, and the woman warrior who is armed with wit and courage will be among the first to celebrate victory» [10].

Continuing the discussion, one cannot overlook Maya Angelou's poem «I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings» [9]. Its leading concept - freedom - is depicted as universal and all-embracing. Poetically, the sense of freedom is illustrated by the image of wings that aspire to reach the heights that only sunbeams can reach, or the blue of the sky, or tender winds that fondle tree leaves:

line 1 A free bird leaps on the back

Of the wind and floats downstream Till the current ends and dips his wing In the orange sun rays line 5 And dares to claim the sky.

But a bird that stalks down his narrow cage Can seldom see through his bars of rage His wings are clipped and his feet are tied So he opens his throat to sing.

line 10 The caged bird sings with a fearful trill Of things unknown but longed for still And his tune is heard on the distant hill for The caged bird sings of freedom.

The free bird thinks of another breeze

line 15 And the trade winds soft through The sighing trees

And the fat worms waiting on a dawn-bright Lawn and he names the sky his own.

But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams line 20 His shadow shouts on a nightmare scream His wings are clipped and his feet are tied So he opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings with A fearful trill of things unknown line 25 But longed for still and his

Tune is heard on the distant hill For the caged bird sings of freedom.

(Angelou, «I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings»)

The verse cited above expresses an idea that trivial everyday things appear to be objects of the cherished liberty, which, in turn, stands in opposition to frustrated dreams. The latter ones are metaphorically presented through the cage - the image of the broken flight (both in its direct and transferred, or metaphoric, meanings). The universal idea of freedom also acquires here its cultural implication. The poem's key notions can be interpreted as components of ethno-cultural concepts of slavery and freedom. Both acquire their artistic manifestation through specific imagery and carefully selected diction. Thus the nominative linguistic unit «caged bird» has become a stereotypical symbolic trope in African American poetic tradition to connote a black man/woman's deprivation of freedom. The idea of non-freedom is intensified by the following lexemes: «grave» (line 19), «nightmare» (line 20), «clip(ped)» (line 8),» tied' (line 21), «cage(d)» (lines 6, 10, 23, 27), «bar(s)» (line 7). Its opposite concept finds its verbal expression in: «current» (line 3), «ray(s)» (line 4), «wind» (line 2), «breeze» (line 14), «dreams» (line 19), « «freedom» (line 27), «distant hill» (line 26) etc.

On the other hand, self-identification of an African American woman in multicultural surroundings can be realized with regard to a dichotomy defined by W.E.B. Du Bois as» two - ness»: «an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder» [Du Bois, qtd. in 1, 166]. Similarly, the nature of an African American woman herself may be viewed as double, sometimes triple, or even multiple. Raising and contemplating such questions as: `What does it mean to be a woman?'; `What does it mean to be a black woman?'; `What does it mean to be a black woman in the USA?'; `What does it mean to be a black woman in a male-centered and white-dominant society?'; `What does it mean to be an African-American writer or poet?, ' etc., suggests ways in which identity can be articulated in a particular environment.

The above mentioned idea of «two-ness» can be applied to an appropriate interpretation of Angelou's poem «On the Pulse of Morning» [11] and Audre Lorde's «Coal» [13]. The synthetic image of oneself and another, the kaleidoscopic nature of the world outlook can find their poetical expression on two levels:

a) a conceptual level (Angelou appeals to the patriotic feelings of Americans as well as their cultural, social and ethnic roots, stressing a combined nature of identity markers);

b) a linguostylistic level (in Audre Lorde's poem «Coal» the poetics of `blackness' appears as a trope of the feministic image of a womb / Th. the total black… from the earth's inside»/, or the antinomic notions /coal - diamond/. The overall message of the poem highlights the idea of pride in one's ethnic and national history, no matter how different from the mainstream it might be.

In addition, an inalienable part of a multicultural worldview is a reference, both conscious and unconscious, to the idea of «signifying.» The term itself comes from African American studies developed by Henry L. Gates, who defined signifyin(g) as «a metaphor for formal revision, or intertextuality, within Afro-American literary tradition…. [which] represents the peculiar relation African-American writers have with regard to standard English and the vernacular of black American speech» (qtd. in 1, 167). Consequently, according to Gates, the ambivalence of African American literature, originates in an ancient controversy between the normative English writing format and oral narrative traditions and techniques of the black folk.

The crucial aspects of signifying - revision and repetition - aim at condemning prior lack of full and complete presentation of the events. As Olena Lomonos states, for a long period of time, African Americans were prohibited from encountering their cultural codes. Thus, their historical experience was mainly reflected in myths, folk tales and music, where signifying was a very peculiar and meaningful device through which to express attitudes towards reality [5, 155]. In literature signifying has become a rhetorical means employed by a number of African American authors, because it emphasized the original performative aspect of African American art. These traditional spirituals were promoted through performances, such as that of Maya Angelou's well - known poem «On the Pulse of Morning» [11], which was presented at the inauguration ceremony of President Clinton:A Rock, A River, A Tree

line 40 There is a true yearning to respond to The singing river and the wise rock. So say the Asian, the Hispanic, the Jew,

The African and Native American, the Sioux,

The Catholic, the Muslim, the French, the Greek,

line 45 The Irish, the Rabbi, the Priest, the Sheikh,

The Gay, the Straight, the Preacher,

The privileged, the homeless, the Teacher.

They hear. They all hear The speaking of the Tree.

line 50 They hear the first and last of every tree

Speaks to humankind. Come to me, here beside the river.

Plant yourself beside me, here beside the river.

Each of you, descendant of some passed on Traveller, has been paid for.

line 55 You, who gave me my first name,

You Pawnee, Apache and Seneca,

You Cherokee Nation, who rested with me,

Then forced on bloody feet,

Left me to the employment of other seekers - line 60 Desperate for gain, starving for gold.

You, the Turk, the Swede,

the German, the Eskimo, the Scot,

the Italian, the Hungarian, the Pole,

You the Ashanti, the Yoruba, the Kru, bought, line 65 Sold, stolen, arriving on a nightmare Praying for a dream.

line 100 Here on the pulse of this new day

You may have the grace to look up and out And into your sister's eyes,

Into your brother's face, your country And say simply line 105 Very simply With hope -

Good morning. Recollecting the history of her nation on the territory of a new continent, the poetess resorts to conceptual tropes / images: «the rock,» «the river,» and «the tree». The author endows them with a symbolic connotative meaning that stands for strength, wisdom, pride, beauty, vitality, tolerance, multitude ofcultural implications, and «togetherness.» The latter is visible in references to personal and possessive pronouns («you,» «yours», «we», «us», «I», «my»), which create the effect of presenting oneselfas a part of a whole nation. People of all ethnicities, religions, social strata, gender and ages (lines 42-47, 56-64) are united under the name of'brothers» and «sisters» (lines 102, 103). Considering herself to be one of them, Maya Angelou calls on her compatriots to have a hopeful vision of the future that becomes renewed, to listen to and hear the hearts of one another, and to read the wishes of happiness in the eyes of the neighbor.

line 1 BECAUSE we have forgotten our ancestors, our children no longer give us honor.

BECAUSE we have lost the path our ancestors cleared kneeling in perilous undergrowth, line 5 our children cannot find their way.

BECAUSE we have banished the God of our ancestors, our children cannot pray.

BECAUSE the old wails of our ancestors have faded beyond our hearing, our children cannot hear us crying.

line 10 BECAUSE we have abandoned our wisdom of mothering and fathering, our befuddled children give birth to children they neither want nor understand.

BECAUSE we have forgotten how to love, the adversary is within our gates, an holds us up to the mirror of the world shouting, line 15 «Regard the loveless.»

Therefore we pledge to bind ourselves to one another, to embrace our lowliest, to keep company with our loneliest, to educate our illiterate, to feed our starving, to clothe our ragged, to do all good things, knowing that we are more than keepers of our brothers and sisters.

line 20 We ARE our brothers and sisters.

IN HONOR of those who toiled and implored God with golden tongues,

and in gratitude to the same God who brought us out of hopeless desolation, we make this pledge.

The poem is based on conceptual oppositions, though it acquires its integrated form due to the anaphoric repetition of the word `BECAUSE' that suggests a cause - and-result follow-up in rendering the cultural code. By contrasting ancestors and children, Maya Angelou emphasizes the necessity of filling out the generation gap. This can be done by showing the significance of realizing the self as a member of a definite ethnic and social group. Logically, the author's diction here is also rich in antonymic vocabulary, which finds linguistic reflection in the following lexico-semantic and conceptual chains:

a) generations - ancestors, children, brothers, sisters, mothering, fathering, we;

b) social group identity markers - illiterate / educated, fed / starving, clothed / ragged; path / not to findone's way, wisdom / refusal to understand, to love / regard the loveless, etc.

The concluding metaphoric epithets serve as the overall message of the poem declared by the pledge: «In honor of those who toiled and implored God with golden tongues',… `in gratitude to the same God who brought us out of hopeless desolation» (lines 20-23). These lines empower African American community to find its specific place within the multiethnic American society.

According to Henry Gates, whose opinions are grounded in the theory of Roland Barthes, the poetic form of the cultural code and its renewal suggest a parallel between the `speakerly text, ' as stated by Gates, and

line 1 (Sometimes I wonder:

What to say to you now in the soft afternoon air as you hold us all in a single death?) line 5 I say -

Where is your fire?

I say -

Where is your fire?

You got to find it and pass it on. line 10 You got to find it and pass it on from you to me from me to her from her to him from the son to the father from the brother to the sister from the daughter to the mother from the mother to the child.

Where is your fire? I say where is your fire?

Can't you smell it coming out of our past? line 15 The fire of living. not dying The fire of loving. not killing The fire of Blackness.not gangster shadows.

Where is our beautiful fire that gave light to the world?

line 20 The fire of pyramids;

The fire that burned through the holes of slaveships and made us breathe; The fire that made guts into chitterlings;

The fire that took rhythms and made jazz;

The fire of sit-ins and marches that made line 25 us jump boundaries and barriers;

The fire that took street talk sounds and made righteous imhotep raps.

Where is your fire, the torch of life full of Nzingha and Nat Turner and Garvey line 30 and DuBois and Fannie Lou Hamer and Martin and Malcolm and Mandela.

Sister / Sistah Brother / Brotha Come /Come

CATCH YOUR FIRE. DON'T KILL

line 35 HOLD YOUR FIRE… DON'T KILL LEARN YOUR FIRE. DON'T KILL BE THE FIRE. DON'T KILL Catch the fire and burn with eyes that see our souls: line 40 WALKING.

SINGING.

BUILDING.

LAUGHING.

LEARNING. line 45 LOVING.

TEACHING.

BEING.

Hey. Brother / Brotha. Sister / Sista. Here is my hand.

line 50 Catch the fire.and live. live.

livelivelive. livelivelive. live.

line 55 live.

The coexistence of voices is secured by abundant repetitions (lexical: «fire», «live»/ «living», «catch»; syntactical parallel constructions: «the fire of living… not dying»/ «the fire of loving.not killing»; «hold your fire.,» «learn your fire.,» «be the fire.»), free punctuation, allusions to jazz rhythms and precedent names: Nat Turner, Garvey, DuBois, Fannie Lou Hamer, Martin, Malcolm, Mandela) as well as conceptual dichotomies. Stylistically, the image of fire as a source of life, love and struggle, running throughout the whole piece, appears in the following metaphors: «catch your fire,» «be the fire,» «burn with eyes,» «see our souls,» «the fire of Blackness» (lines 36, 39, 40, 41, 19). The mentioned names provide historical context for identity search. They seem to be properly chosen (ranging from the beginning of the 19^th century to early 21^st century) considering that these are the names of keynote spokepersons of the democratic views on African American rights.

In the final stanza (lines 50-57), the traditional call on future generations to continue living in pride and dignity rounds off the whole poem. Here, the reader is again plunged into authentic forms of African American poetic self-expression. Those include a reference to a metaphoric reflection of a long lasting and complex experience of African Americans as well as archetypal music patterns. All this is aimed at maintaining connections within the community and over generations. The poem is reminiscent of a dialogue, a spontaneous verbal and nonverbal interaction that requires active participation of all.

References

lexical linguistic female poet

1. Allen, G. (2001). Intertextuality. N.Y., Routledge. Taylor and Francis Group.

2. Bridenthal, R., et al. (1990). Restoring Women to History. In Issues in Feminism: an Introduction to Women's Studies. Compiled by Sheila Ruth. 2^nd edition. London, Toronto: Mayfield Publishing Company, pp. 407-413.

3. Collins, P. (1989). The Social Construction of Black Feminist Thought. In Journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. 14, no. 4. pp. 745-773.

4. Culler, J. (2000). Literary Theory. A Very Short Introduction. N.Y., Oxford University Press.

5. Lomonos, O. (2000). Middle Passage: Reading History Anew. In International Conference Proceedings «20^th Century American Literature after Midcentury». Kyiv, Dovira Publishing House, pp. 155-161.

6. Tate, C. (2004). Audre Lorde. In Conversations with Audre Lorde. Edited by Joan Wylie Hall. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, pp. 85-101.

7. Vyssotska, N. (2000). American Literary Studies Today: Multicultural Dimensions. In International Conference Proceedings «20^th Century American Literature after Midcentury». Kyiv, Dovira Publishing House, pp. 267-272.

8. Воробей, Н.В. (2011). Етнокультурна картина світу в афро-американській поезії: лінгво - когнітивний та лінгвокультурологічний аспекти: автореф. дис…. канд. філол. наук. Херсон, 22 с. [Vorobei, N. V Ethnocultural Picture of the World in the African American Poetry: Linguistic, Cognitive and Cultural Aspects. Synopsis of the Thesis for a candidate degree in philology].

9. Angelou, M. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. http://www.poemhunter.com/p/m/poem.asp? poet=6834&poem=33060

10. Angelou, M. In All Ways a Woman. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/in-all-ways-a-woman

11. Angelou, M. On the Pulse of Morning. http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/on-the-pulse-of-morning-2/

12. Angelou, M. Poetry. http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/angelou/poems-ma.html

13. Lorde, Audre. Coal. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poems/detail/42577

14. Lorde, Audre. (1984). «Poetry Is Not a Luxury» Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. Freedom. http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/lorde/activism.htm

15. Samuel, Manohar. (2014). Deferred Dreams: The Voice of African American Women's Poetry since the 1970s. In American Studies Today. Online, Vol. 21. http://www.americansc.org.uk/Online/samuel.htm

16. Sanchez, S. Poem at Thirty. https://words-end-here.livejournal.com/49635.html Sanchez, S. Catch the Fire. https://soulbrotherspeaks.com/2013/05/10/sonia-sanchez-catch-the-fire/

Размещено на Allbest.ru