Evolution in usage and functioning of endearing and friendly forms of address in British and American prose of the 19-21 centuries

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Evolution in usage and functioning of endearing and friendly forms of address in British and American prose of the 19-21 centuries

У статті досліджується еволюція дружніх та пестливих форм звертання в британській та американській прозі ХІХ-ХХІ ст. Контекстний аналіз таких форм звертання доводить, що вони змінюють свою форму та функціо-нування відповідно до соціальних обставин та змін у мовленнєвому етикеті. Ключові слова: мовленнєвий етикет, форма звертання, міжкультурне спілкування, комунікант.

В статье рассматривается эволюция дружеских и ласковых форм обращения в британской и американской прозе ХІХ-ХХІ вв. Контекстный анализ таких форм обращения доказывает, что они изменяют свою форму и функционирование в соответствии с социальными обстоятельствами и изменениями в речевом этикете.

Ключевые слова: речевой этикет, форма обращения, межкультурное обще-ние, коммуникант.

This article deals with evolution of the endearing and friendly forms of address in British and American prose of the 19^th-21^st centuries. The contextual analysis of these forms of address proves that they change their forms and functioning according to the social circumstances and changes in speech etiquette.

Key words: speech etiquette, form of address, intercultural communication, communicant. british american prose

In the epoch of globalization and expansion of linguistic contacts the skills to establish contacts and to organize cooperation between communicants comes to the foreground in the process of interpersonal and intercultural communication. Every speech act begins with address which is considered to be one of the main contact determinative factors. The study of this phenomenon takes place in the sphere of speech etiquette and the interest of linguists in this problem is caused by the clearly expressed national and cultural peculiarities. In line with those studies we will focus on the evolution of usage and functioning of endearing and friendly forms of address in British and American prose of the 19^th-21^st centuries. The study also reveals that the English language is rich enough in this respect and that a certain skill is required of English speakers to make an accurate and proper use of the vast range of choices for addressing individuals in various contexts [4, p. 85].

Lately the problem of evolution of the forms of address, their comparison and classification in view of the socio-economic, political changes and, as a result, the changes of the forms of communicative interaction in the English language has acquired great significance in the works of F. S. Batsevich [1], V. E. Goldin [2], G. P. Grice [3], N. I. Formanovskaya [4], M. Clyne [5], J. T. Wood [6] and other scholars.

The topicality of this problem is explained by the importance of speech etiquette in everyday life and the necessity to investigate its changes, namely endearing and friendly forms of address, according to the new sociolinguistic conditions of given period. The problem of classification of the forms of address causes interest, because the analysis of changes in the forms of address provides for the understanding of their key role in conveying national, cultural colour and peculiarities of interpersonal communication in Great Britain and the USA in the light of social changes in the 19^th-21^st centuries.

Taking into account the analysis of definitions of address given by the above-mentioned researchers, we can give our own definition of this phenomenon. Thus, address is a thematic unit of speech etiquette which serves for joining or attracting attention of the communicants with the purpose to be included into a speech act and expressed verbally in the form of words, a group of words or word- combinations naming a person to whom the speech is addressed.

Endearing and friendly words play an important role in informal discourse as they define the level of intimacy, friendship or closeness between the communicants. Moreover, these words are universal and may be used towards all gender, social or professional groups regardless of their ethnic background, race or nationality. Nouns and adjectives, sometimes preceded by the possessive determiner `my' in affectionate, sympathetic, humorous, or patronizing contexts, or by the personal pronoun `you' make up the most numerous group of endearing and friendly forms of address.

In the 19^th century communicants paid special attention to the outer form of their message. The message could contain not enough information about the actions or reactions of the addressee but it could be full of praising words towards the addressee of the message. Very often the endearing words resemble the beginning of a speech as in the following example where the speaker sounds very passionate and inspiring: `For the truth. O dear, good, compassionate sir. For the truth!' [12, p. 41]. The same can be observed in the following example: `Consistency, my dear Mr. Brocklehurst; I advocate consistency in all things' [9, p. 59]. In this situation Mrs. Reed addresses her friend Mr. Brocklehurst emphasizing her friendly attitude towards him. The content of the message itself is not very full, as the word `consistency' is the main one in it but the rest of the message is devoted to the attitude of the speaker towards the addressee.

Many endearing and friendly words in the forms of address were commonplace towards different members of the family, landlords or friends as it is shown in thenovel `Jane Eyre': `My dear cousin, abandon your scheme of marriage - forget it' [9, p. 329]. In this example we see that Jane uses the possessive determiner followed by the endearing word and a term of kinship to sound convincing and express inducement to action. In the next example she addresses her dearest friend in the charity school using the same pattern: `I'll stay with you, DEAR Helen: no one shall take me away' [9, p. 127]. In this context the form of address performs a soothing role for the little girl who is incurably ill.

The form `my dear' can be used independently without names, terms of kinship or titles. In this case it performs the function of the noun naming the addressee of the message as an affectionate or friendly form of address. In the novel `Oliver Twist' we can observe that Mr. Fagin addresses all the addressees using this form of address. It may mean that the form of address may undergo loss of meaning used as a typical pattern: `Ah!' replied Fagin. `What a pity, Bill, my dear, that there's none quite ready to be done' [13, p. 143]. The same may be observed in the novel `The Picture of Dorian Gray' where Lord Henry begins his conversations with Dorian with the words: `my dear young friend', `my dear fellow', `dear Mr. Gray'. On the one hand, it may express a sign of respect as they are not well acquainted but, on the other hand, by using this form of address Lord Henry is quite insincere with his new friend or simply wants to attract his attention.

In general, the forms of address including the word `dear' were the most widespread among other endearing forms of address in informal discourse in the 19<sup>th</sup> century. It may be explained by the fact that this word could not hurt or offend anybody's feelings within different groups of communicants and was the most `neutral' among the endearing words in the forms of address. Often the superlative degree of comparison is used as a form of address between the beloved: `I would ask you, dearest, to be very generous with him always, and very lenient on his faults when he is not by' [12, p. 138]; or both forms combined: `Dearest dear! Can you tell me, this last time, that you feel quite, quite sure, no new affections of mine, and no new duties of mine, will ever interpose between us?' [ibid., p. 123].

The forms of address including the adjective `little' were used mostly towards beloved or spouses to emphasize admiration, rapture or friendly feelings: `Jane, my little darling (so I will call you, for so you are), you don't know what you are talking about; you misjudge me again: it is not because she is mad I hate her' [9, p. 374]. Also Mr. Rochester addresses his beloved as `my little girl', `my little Jane', `my little friend', `my little wife'. One more reason for using this word in the form of address is to emphasize her slim figure and Jane's short height. Sometimes the word `little' was used towards children: `Ah! A child too! Your mother, is it not, my little citizeness?' [12, p. 40]. In the novel `Oliver Twist' the word `little' in the form of address denotes superiority, anger and threat: `Never mind,' retorted Mr. Bolter; `and don't yer take liberties with yer superiors, little boy, or yer'll find yerself in the wrong shop' [13, p. 412].

The form `darling' could be used mostly towards children or beloved: `Farewell, my darling Adele!' I said, as I glanced towards the nursery [9, p. 311]. In this context Jane Eyre addresses her little pupil. In general, the formula `poor+thing/fellow/darling'becomes very popular in the 19<sup>th</sup> century. It expresses sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others: `I could not see where his wound was, as I kneeled on one knee over him; but, I could see that he was dying of a wound from a sharp point. `I am a doctor, my poor fellow, ' said I. `Let me examine it' [12, p. 332]. The doctor tries to calm his patient down and soothe his pain partly by using this kind of address. As a manifestation of support the form `poor thing' is used in the next example: `They would not if they were not obliged to, poor things!' [19, p. 327].

The forms of address including the word `old' were also quite numerous in the 19<sup>th</sup> century and mostly concerned the friends of representatives of the bohemia and middle class in general. The reflection of the usage of this form is given in the next example: `My dear old Basil, you are much more than an acquaintance' [24, p. 10]. Judging by this example, we can say that usage of the word `old'means that the communicants have almost brotherly ties. However, the word `old' may be used towards elderly people: `My dear old nurse!' cried Oliver. `He would come back-I knew he would,' said the old lady, holding him in her arms [13, p. 486]. Oliver Twist expressed his affection and familiarity towards his nurse.

At the same time, the form of address `old girl' which could be used to an old or middle-aged woman could mean disrespect: ...he called his mother `old girl,' too; sometimes reviled her for her dark skin, similar to his own; bluntly disregarded her wishes; not infrequently tore and spoiled her silk attire; and he was still `her own darling' [9, p. 22]. The form of address used by John towards his mother was simply outrageous. It proves that he is proud neither of his mother nor of his origin. Such a form of address was rather an exception.

Some other popular forms of address towards friends included `old fellow': `So glad you've come, old fellow.' [19, p. 21]; `my good fellow': `Now, my good fellow, how are you?' he asked [9, p. 402]; `my good friend': `I'll tell you what, ' whispered that gentleman to Mr. Brownlow; `he won't come up to you tomorrow morning. I saw him hesitate. He is deceiving you, my good friend' [13, p. 159]. However, we can admit that such forms of address mostly concern men's friendship.

Interesting forms of address including different endearing words are used by members of the aristocracy or middle classes towards children: `You see now, my queenly Blanche, ' began Lady Ingram, `she encroaches. Be advised, my angel girl - and -' [9, p. 366]; or `My lily-flower, you are right now, as always' [ibid., 338]. The marked forms of address were used to emphasize Miss Ingram's aristocratic origin and beauty compared to the beauty of the flower.

`My child, you are far too young to think of falling in love' [24, p. 39]. A similar form of address is used in the next example: `Well, my sweet,' said Miss Pross, nodding her head emphatically...' [12, p. 214]. The form of address `my child' and `my sweet' often emphasized the naivety and inconsistency of actions of the young representatives of the middle class. The two examples show us that such forms of address concerned mostly females.

Metonymy and metaphor often function as the forms of address concerning relationships between the beloved: `If you know it, it is enough. What would you have me do, my Life?' [ibid., p. 138]. In this example the form `my life' is used metaphorically. `A fancy, then, my wise pet,' said Mr. Lorry, patting her hand [ibid., p. 136]. In this context the woman is compared to a `wise pet' as she is very clever, though she was expected to do what she had been ordered. The above expression is also used as a metaphor.

In the 20^th century the usage of colloquial words in the friendly forms of address increased as the general tendency in the usage of informal forms of address was to simplify friendly forms of address. Moreover, friendly forms of address which were popular within the lower classes became widely used between representatives of the middle classes as the aristocracy lost its leading positions in the society. Thus, we can observe the simplification and shortening of the endearing and friendly forms of address.

According to our investigation, one of the most widely used forms of friendly address in the 20^th century becomes the form `(my) noun+dear'. There are the following realizations of this formula found in fiction: `Rest, my dear, rest. That's one of the most important things' [11, p. 120]. The form of address is used bya doctor who wants to give his support to the patient.

In the conversation between Martin Eden and his sister, she addresses him as `poor dear' to express her compassion and pity: `Why, you haven't anything to eat, you poor dear,' she said with tender compassion. `You must be starving' [20, p. 196]. Sometimes the form `dear' was placed after the noun to attract more attention on the part of the addressee: `But I am happy with Martin Eden. No one ever loved me before - no man, I mean, in that way. And it is sweet to be loved - that way. You know what I mean, mother dear' [ibid., p. 148]. In her passionate speech Ruth wants to prove to her mother that she loves Martin Eden. The form `dear' is placed after the form of address `mother' to sound more convincing. In a similar example the same pattern is observed when a woman gives short instructions to her niece: `Oh, Fran dear!' she wailed. `They say we've got to go to the church hall. I don't know why we can't stay in my place - that's not threatened' [16, p. 244]. The form `dear' is often changed into `dearie' with the help of the affectionate diminutive suffix and then it has the meaning of a condescending form of address or if the speaker is superior to the addressee: On the next corner a girl spoke to him. `Like to come home with me, dearie?' [11, p. 157]. In this example we see that the girl wanted to win Martin's favour and, moreover, she wanted to draw his attention.

The form `dear'can be followed by the colloquial forms `fellow', `chap', `man' to express the speaker's subjective temporary attitude to the addressee: `My dear fellow, you quite startled me. I thought I'd given you enough files to last you for a month' [10, p. 245]. In this example the speaker expresses some reproach to the addressee. A similar situation is described in the next example: `Come in here a minute, my dear chap. ' And he drew Andrew into the sitting room. `We've been trying to find you, on your rounds, all the morning' [ibid., p. 220]. In this case we see that the speaker is quite surprised to see Andrew, though some shades of reproach are also noticeable as he spent much time to find him. The next example shows that the speaker shows irritation because the addressee is annoying for the speaker: `You don't really think...' `My dear man, I never think. But if it'll make you feel any better, just in case you have an attack of chivalry, my husband made his money on the black market when you were crawling about in the jungle, so you see it's particularly yours' [11, p. 137].

The colloquial informal forms of address including the indicators of age `old' and `young' also become very popular in the 20^th century: `Thanks, old man,' said his friend, `I'll see what the girl says and let you know' [14, p. 106]. The forms `old man', `old fellow', `old chap' and `old boy' become popular affectionate forms of address between men or boys: `Honestly, old chap, you'll find nothing to beat the good old hypo' [10, p. 242]. He knew by name, and could greet personally with a `Well, old fellow,' hundreds of actors, merchants, politicians, and the general run of successful characters about town, and it was part of his success to do so [14, p. 38]. From this example we can see that the form `old fellow' could be treated as the most general one because it was enough to know a person's name to address him like this. `It's good advertising, Martin, old boy,' Brissenden repeated solemnly [20, p. 288]. The form `old boy' is a positive term of address used to connote respect, wisdom and experience in a person, usually male who appears youthful.

People communicated more with representatives of various social and political groups and that is why the range of endearing words for friends increased radically. Thus, we can mention such forms for male friends as `fellow', `man', `mate', `boy' and `kid': Edwards, the last man called, was absent a long, a very long time. He came out smiling broadly, his look plainly saying: `Sorry for you, fellows. This is in my pocket' [10, p. 119]. The form of address `fellow' describes other people who are in the same situation as the speaker. The form of address `man' is used to express surprise, admiration, delight, etc., or for emphasis: `By God, I think you're right! Better a hobo than a beast of toil. Why, man, you'll live. And that's more than you ever did before' [20, p. 143]. In this context the given form of address is used as a sign of encouragement and support of the addressee. `So long, mate - I'll be seein' yer,' he said [11, p. 16]. The marked form of address describes a friend, recognisably Australian, though also used in Britain and New Zealand. In Australia, the term is most commonly used between men, when they cannot remember each other's names.

The form `boy' is used with male friends who are part of the company or share the same interests: Manson my boy,' he declared momentously. `We're together from the start' [10, p. 211]. In most cases it is used towards children: `What's the matter with you, boy, can't you talk?' said Mr. Tate, grinning at Jem. “Didn't you know your daddy's -' [21, p. 53]. Children or young people are also addressed as `kids': `Hey, kid, not a problem', he replied [23, p. 8]. This form of address is mostly used by strangers towards children.

The friendly address mostly used for the beloved or children included the following endearing forms of address: `darling', `sweetheart', and `honey': When Hurstwood saw that Drouet was back he wrote at once to Carrie, saying: [...] `Let me know of anything you may have said. Answer by special messenger when you get this, and, darling, I must see you' [14, p. 108]. The form `darling' is mostly observed in conversations between the beloved: `I don't know - and you look pale, darling! I don't believe Jenny's been feeding you' [10, p. 219]. However, the form `sweetheart' is used towards children as well as the beloved: `Well, tell her, sweetheart,' Mother said, smiling again [23, p. 125]. As for the form `honey',it is used to address someone by giving a sign of affection. However, this form is more typical of American English: `Atticus, are we going to win it?' `No, honey' [21, p. 41].

The least numerous group of friendly address in informal discourse in the 20^th century, according to our investigation, is the group of nicknames. Comparing the usage of nicknames with those used in the 19^th century, we can say that their usage in the 20^th century is limited by the family circle: Father always broke the ice. `How yadoin', Tiger?' he would say [23, p. 101]. The above-mentioned nickname denotes an animal, it means that the addressee is very strong and patient and can endure all the difficulties and troubles. Another example: `I saw that, One-Shot Finch!' [21, p. 53]. In this case we see that the nickname was given to the protagonist for his shooting skills which proved that one shot was enough to kill the mad dog. The nicknames could be used only within a family circle as only the members of the family could know the habits and weak points of each other and could give such nicknames which encouraged the addressees but not offended them.

In the 21^st century the most numerous group of friendly forms of address comprises the forms `darling', `sweetheart' and `sweetie': `Good night, Mom,' she said. `Good night, darling. Come home soon. Stay away from that man. Mountain climbers are no good' [22, p. 115]. In this context the mother addresses her daughter as `darling'. But she mostly concentrates on the instructions for the daughter's further actions. In other cases the form is often used to establish communicative contacts if, for example, the speaker joins the conversation mostly in a family circle: `Hello, darlings,' Erica paused in the dining room door and smiled down on her grandchildren [18, p. 169]. The new forms`sweetheart',`sweetie' become widely used: `Sweetheart, I tried to reach you for days, but I could never get through' [15, p. 343]. Someone who is a kind-hearted, nice, sweet, great person, a personality, pleasant to be around and just a great friend, is addressed as `sweetheart'. Usually this form of address is directed at the beloved. `Sweetie' is an informal way of endearing address between the beloved if they are too much fond of each other: `C'mon, sweetie. If I thought I had a handle on this guy, I would have told you sooner' [ibid., p. 30]. Moreover, it is a typical way of addressing children: `Nevertheless, she hugged Wendy close. `Thanks for your help, sweetie' [18, p. 202].

Some other popular forms of address towards the beloved or children include the forms `baby'/`babe', `honey'/`hon', `love', `lovely', `angel', `sunshine': `Baby, I want to be around to kill all your spiders. Forever.Staring right now. Will you -' [15, p. 309]. And a similar example where a man addresses his girlfriend: `Got bad news, babe?' he asked [ibid., p. 56]. The above-mentioned forms of address are used by men if they find the young woman cute and attractive. Alongside the form `honey' the shortened form `hon' is used if the message is short itself and especially if there is no hint of further actions: `That's great news, hon' [ibid., p. 368].

The forms `love', `sunshine' and `angel' can be possible between adults, but according to our investigation, they are mostly found in the conversations between parents and children: Her father looked at her. `It's not about the war, love. It's about her life' [25, p. 12]. `Sunshine' is used as a friendly form of address, sometimes with a shade of threat: `And you're not a family yet, sunshine' [ibid., p. 142]. The speaker is quite unsure of the actions of the addressee and that is why he may be compared with the unstable rays of the sun which are very changeable and deceptive. The forms `angel' and `lovely' are used only towards children: `Sweet dreams, angel.' `Good night, Daddy!' [18, p. 103]. The children are very good-looking and obedient if they are addressed as `lovely': `Bedtime, my lovelies'. Adam looked at the crew on the couch and chuckled to himself [ibid., p. 36].

The scarcely used but noticeable forms of address towards men include the forms `buddy' and `man': `You need directions, bud?' [22, p. 241]. The marked shortened form is used as a form of addressing a man whose name is not known. The form `man' is used to keep the addressee's attention and interest in the speaker who can represent a professional group as well as a group of friends: `I'm on my way, man. Hang in there!' [15, p. 66].

Comparing the usage of the form `dear' in the 20<sup>th</sup> and 21<sup>st</sup> centuries, we can say that at the beginning of the 21<sup>st</sup> century the usage of this form is reduced and loses its original meaning: Erica said impatiently: `Don't worry, dear, about the children' [18, p. 222]. This form of address is used in the conversation between the new nurse and the children's grandmother.

The new form `guys' is borrowed from American English. Americans sometimes address a group of people, whether they are male or female, as `guys' or `you guys': `Hey, youguys! Hey, Tomaso! Claudia! Listen!' [17, p. 372].

In conclusion, we can say that in the 19^th century there existed a great variety of endearing and friendly forms of address which could be used by the representatives of all social classes. However, the most fanciful forms were typical of the aristocracy and middle classes as there was asmooth transition from formal forms of address to informal ones. People paid special attention to the outer form of address, that is why long forms of address were often used. They consisted of a pronoun, several adjectives and nouns, sometimes containing job titles. The endearing words in forms of address were used mostly towards friends, relatives or beloved people.

The material analyzed shows that a general tendency to shortening friendly forms of address began in the 20^th century. People could understand each other easily and they used short forms of address to emphasize their subjective and mostly perfunctory attitude towards the addressee. The potential addressees were the beloved, friends and children.

The beginning of the 21^st century introduces a new process of interaction of languages and cultures and that is why there are many borrowings in British English which, first of all, were taken from American English and thus, the forms of address `honey', `baby'/`babe', `darling', `buddy', become universal in both variants of the English language. However, the sphere of communicative situations is quite limited as the communicants try to follow the rules of political correctness and feminism. This caution is especially topical within the group of communicants of different gender.

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