Transformations of the world space: From Pliny’s Natural History to the Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium of C. Julius Solinus and the poem De Mirabilibus of Theodericus

Theodericus did not add any Christian content to the description of ludaea. In this, he followed Solinus, who, in the corresponding section, did not list Jewish or Christian monuments. But Solinus mentioned an essentially Roman episode which Theodericus carefully reproduced: Marcus Aemilius Scaurus transferred from Jaffa, and showed in Rome fossils believed to be the bones of the sea-monster (belua) that had threatened Andromede. Paleontological aspects of Scaurus' monster have been examined in [Mayor 2000: 138].

eius reliquias immania scilicet ossa

invexit Romam Marcus cognomine Scaurus

(Its remains, that is to say, the immense bones, were introduced to Rome by Marcus, whose surname was Scaurus).

The Jaffa monster is not the only item related to Roman games and triumphs which survived in De mirabilibus. It is difficult to decide whether Theodericus recognized the Roman spectacula as a special theme, or the persistence of those items could be explained by their frequency in Pliny's Natural History, and then in the Collectanea. In any case, the spectacula mentioned by Theodericus contribute to an image of that Ancient Rome as an extravagant wonderland.

It is not surprising that two continuous notes related to spectacula are about African beasts Th. 661-667 ^ Sol. 30.19-21 133,20-134,7 M ^ Plin. 8.69, 71.:

pardalem dicunt Latio sermone camelum

viderat hoc animal Latium te consule C^sar

viderat et monstra qu$ sunt cefusa vocata

...

Pompei ludis spectacula rhinocherotis

viditRomapotens. cornuprg naribus ingens 11 surgit...

([The beast navus³] is called in Latin tongue Camelopardalis The best mss of Solinus read nabum, vapour; was probably a genuine vernacular appellation of the giraffe: [Morta 2014]. One should notice a fantastic hyperbaton in Th. 661., Latium saw that animal when you, Caesar, were the consul, and another monsters were seen, which are called cefusa ... At Pompey's games, mighty Rome saw a spectacle of rhinoceros: a huge horn rises in front of his nostrils ...)

The words Romapotens (Th. 667) have no correspondence in the Collectanea, but the addition does not necessarily prove that Theodericus was willing to glorify ancient Rome. He is likely to have borrowed the whole hemistich directly from thematically similar Horace, Epist. 1.1,61: arto stipata theatro || spectat Roma potens, -- and this quotation, again, merely demonstrates the author's erudition. A metrical pattern could also influence the poet: the expression Romapotens neatly fits the pre-caesural position, and has a good rhyme -- ingens. It appears in the same position in classical and early medieval poetry Ovidius, Fasti, 4,106; Statius, Silv., 4.1,28; Alcuin, Carm., 224,2 PL, 101,778 D., and Theodericus could treat it as a metrical cliche The combination of a trochee- and iambus-shaped word in the pre-caesural position was positively admitted, but not particularly favored by Theodericus: according to my calculations, it occurs 54 times (about 5%), while the prosodically identical clausula, which consists of one choriambic word, occurs 105 times..

The last episode to be considered here is the show of Eutychis discussed in § 5 above.

Eutycides Asig mira prggnans novitate

ter deno partu, Romg -- mirabile visu --

secum bis denos dedit ad spectacula natos

(The pregnancy of Eutychis Theodericus used a form, Eutycides, incorrectly derived from Eutychidem. of Asia was something admirable and never known before with her thrice ten births, and -- wonderful sight -- in Rome she offered herself together with her twice ten sons to a spectacle).

Theodericus renders accurately the content of Solinus' erroneous account. In line with the tendency described above, the poet removed the mention of Pompey, and `his theatre' was replaced by the wider name of Rome. This change has a remarkable implication: Theodericus still knew that the Theatre of Pompey had been situated in Rome This knowledge was by no means trivial in the 11^th century. It could be extracted from Lucan, Pharsalia, 7, 9 sqq..

Theodericus: The World without an order

Solinus begins large geographical sections with general overviews, and he is always explicit in descriptions of geographical situations of regions and areas. Theod- ericus preserves such a landmark only once, when he deals with the transition from the main part of Libya to its wild Oceanic periphery (Th. 309 ^ Sol. 31.1 136,13 M):

post gentes Lybicas quas terminal astrifer Athlas

(in the rear of the tribes of Libya whose limits are laid down by starry Atlas)

In De mirabilibus, names of large regions are all omitted with few exceptions. Thus, Theodericus does not mention Europe, Asia, Italy, Greece, Scythia, Syria, and so on, though he includes in his epitome places and items from those regions. Eventually, there are only three sections in the poem where the name of a respective area stands in the initial verse which can be read as a rubric: Sicula ora Th. 195, Jud^a Th. 44 India Th. 974. And only these three are rendered with chorographical details more or less fully preserved.

Geographical host entries of the Collectanea are largely lost in Theodericus, who, e. g., retells the story about the ring made of achates, but says nothing about the river Achates and the stone itself (Th. 231). Nonetheless, the episode retained a place in the list of rivers.

Geographical names are sometimes preserved as localizations of lower-level non-geographical items. Theodericus thus does not use the name `Egypt' in his long description of creatures of that land, but he speaks about the ficus figiptia (Th. 784) and palma figiptia (Th. 795). Localizations, however, are removed from a considerable number of items. Long stories about animals lack geographical anchors: dolphins (Th. 257), elephants (Th. 398), lions (Th. 457), horses (Th. 977), and others are described without geographical linkage. The notorious Numidian bears lost their address as well, nonetheless, they retained their position among animals located in Libya. As a result, Theodericus' section about bears (Th. 439456) is placed between elephants and lions.

Any idea of movement through the World disappeared together with indications of large regions.

Not only the large areas, but almost all geographical localizations which formed the knots of Solinus' ramifying catalogue are erased. Theodericus mentions Seleucia and mons Cassius (Th. 880, 881), which are situated in Syria, but all subsequent geographical indications down to India are removed, except for two marginal items. Theodericus tells us about an enigmatic lake Arethusa (it will be dealt with in § 10). He then proceeds to the list of stones (Th. 887-910), then an odd creature named animal bonachus appears without any explanation or localization (Th. 911). In order to encounter those items, a reader of the Collectanea would move from the area of Media and the upper Tigris (where the lake is located), through Persia (the list of the stones) to Asia Minor where the bonachus dwells. The bonachus opens a series of marvelous animals of Asia (still not named), and Theodericus states about the chameleon that `Theutrania sends' mittit is a Plinian formula (e. g. Plin. 37.21 about myrrhina quoted above § 3 above) which is favoured by Solinus, e. g. 30.24 134,23 M: Aethiopia mittit lycaonem `there is the lycaon in Ethiopia'. that animal (Th. 919). It seems likely that `Arethusa' and `Theutrania' are another examples of showy erudition. It is highly unlikely that Theodericus and his milieu knew anything about Teuthrania as a real place, but he probably hinted at his knowledge of Martianus Capella Martianus Capella, De nupt. 6.686,6: Supra Troadem in mediterraneo Teuthrania est, quae regio Moesorum fuit, ciuitas vero Teuthrania Caico flumine alluitur..

In summary, it would be impossible to say that the geographical continuum of the Collectanea was reduced or recomposed by Theodericus, because after being totally destroyed, it was not replaced by any other unifying structure. Large regions are entirely omitted, or mercilessly truncated: no more than 20 lines together are devoted to Greece, Thrace and the Aegean Islands. From Solinus' description of Italy, Theodericus took only three items, which occupy about 15 verses:

there are particular hairs (vilum) in tail of the wolf, they are good as an aphrodisiac (Th. І71 ^ Sol. 2.35);

a stone found in the urine of the lynx is a useful medicine (Th. 174 ^ Sol. 2.38);

corals born in the Ligurian Sea are powerful stones (Th. 179 ^ Sol. 2.41).

Theodericus apparently was not interested either in local chorography, or in universal geography, and no idea of the World as a whole can be elicited from his poem.

Theodericus shows a tendency to reduce the matter of the Collectanea to thematic units. Three items extracted from Solinus' description of Italy are likely to form a unit devoted to medical (or magical) remedies. Items concerning rivers and waters were preferred by Theodericus when he abridged the descriptions of Sicily and Greece (Th. 184-247). From Asia Minor he selected animals, including two large stories about the chameleon and horse (Th. 920-939, 947-973). But Theodericus never moved entries from the places they occupied in the geographical grid of the Collectanea*³. As a result, the thematic arrangement of items is never consistently followed through.

Theodericus: The rubric structure

The composition of De mirabilibus is strictly linear and unidimensional. Theodericus puts the items of the World catalogue of the Collectanea into separated notes, without transitions and logical connections. This text-building tactic may be illustrated by the transformation of the story of the Olympic victor Milo: it became divided into two notes, one about Milo, and another about the alectorius stone, so that the logical connection between both items (Milo used the stone) was lost:

plus quam possit homo potuit quoque robore Milo,

qui taurum nudi mactauit uerbere pugni,

mactatumque die solidum consumpsit eadem.

est allectorius gallorum ventre lapillus:

ut faba cristallus specie, pugnantibus aptus.

(and also Milo was strong above the human strength who killed a bull by a single blow of naked fist, and, during the same day, he ate a killed bull whole. There is a stone alectorius in the cock's stomach, a crystal which looks like a bean, this is very good for fighters).

The whole poem displays a typical medieval pattern, with separate isolated chapters that are in large part very short, and that contain no internal information about the global content and structure of the text. This pattern requires regular supra- textual pointers (or simply headings, or rubrics) which would make the content and composition explicit. We need rubrics to understand De mirabilibus, as we need a map to understand the Collectanea. In this regard, the cod. Bruxellensis BR 10615729, shows a rather unusual and inconvenient lay-out: rubrics are not written in the ^{43 Few transpositions can still be found, see} Appendix II, 10.21; 12.2; 31.1. body of the poem, but are collected in a separate block after the Preface The Vienna excerpt has five rubrics written in the text which are related to the monstrous nations of India (Th. 1000-1021 = W 20-45 Hunemorder), they all are lacking in the cod. Bruxellensis., so that they look like a modern table of contents. Most rubrics of the cod. Bruxellensis are related to individual items, and they could be very useful if written within the text, which, in its actual form, is very difficult to navigate through. Some rubrics cover thematic groups, e. g. the section around Milo is rubricated as follows:

De viribu.s hominis (covering the gladiator Tritannus, a soldier of Pompey and Milo),

De allectorio lapide,

De similitudine hominum (a series of examples).

In two instances, a rubric is a higher-level heading which stands before a series of subordinated individual rubrics:

Africa in ea serpentes `Africa, snakes in (Africa)': this is followed by individual rubrics related to snakes: aspis, cerastis, amphisibena, etc. (ad 525 sqq.)

Mira in India in ea de populis `wonders in India, in (India) about nations' (ad 975 sqq.): followed by rubrics related in large part to animals, but `nations' have no special rubrics.

Few individual items are represented by geographical rubrics where geographical names can be combined with thematic information: De Sardoniis herbis et aquis `about Sardinian herbs and waters' (ad 184), Mons Caucasus piper gignit `the mount Caucasus generates pepper' (ad 1138), De Gorgada insula in ea de mulieribus sflosis `about the Isle Gorgada, and in (Gorgada) about furred women' (ad 1167), section on giant snakes from Ganges (Th. 1079) is rubricated as Ganges flumen.

Geographical entries of different higher levels are thus recognized in the list of rubrics, but rubrics offer no additional geographical information which could not be found in the poem. Consequently, most geographical knots are lost in the rubrics, as they are lost in the text. It must be added that the composer of the rubrics The authorship of Theodericus cannot be either proved or rejected. likewise failed to create an overview of the poem based on the thematic principle.

Theodericus: Faults of the source text

Since Theodericus had but a very vague idea of how the World was arranged in geographical space, he could not recognize scribal errors of his Solinus manuscript, and this affected the coherence of the geographical continuum.

A large section on India (Th. 974-1140) is followed by a short note on abnormal astronomical phenomena observed on the Island of Taprobane (Th. 11411146 ^ Sol. 53.6 197,1 M). Here the description of Taprobane is interrupted, and the next section of the poem again refers to India, though it contains two items from Solinus' account of Taprobane: the giant long-living people, and the giant sea turtle (Sol. 53.11 198,1-5 M; 53.20 199,5-8 M ^ Plin. 6.91; 9,35). The description of the longlivers begins in the Collectanea with a phrase: ergo inde homines corporum magnitudine omnes homines antecedunt `so the people from there exceed all other peoples in body size'. The word inde became Indi in three Solinus' manuscripts including G (Guelferbutanus 163, Gud. Lat.): ergo indi homines...

The corrupt reading was rendered by Theodericus as:

1147 sunt homines Indi nostro plus corpore magni

(the people of India have bodies bigger than ours)

It is only logical that Theodericus thought that the sea turtle also is related to the people of India; this allowed him to create an uninterrupted narrative about India:

Indis tam patula crescit testudo marina

(the sea-turtle grows so big for the people of India...)

This passage is remarkable for the descriptive designation of the tortoise shell, which is simply called superficies by Solinus and Pliny The most widely used word for tortoise shell is testudo itself, but Pliny had a rich variety of special words: chelium 6.173;putamen 9.39; cortex 9.40; 11.228; tegumen 11.188; tegimentum 32.34, -- to which two more can be added from other classical authors: testa (an etymology of testudo in Varro, Ling. Lat. 5.79), and concha Calpurnius, Ecl. 6, 68. The expression used by Theodericus is similar to Pliny's description of the swamp turtle, 32.39: nec convexo curvata calice, -- but this similarity does not prove the textual dependence of Theodericus on Pliny, because testudo is a common word for vault (cf. Serv. et Serv. Auct. in Aen. 1,505, p. 1, 157,18 sqq. Thilo-Hagen).:

Indus ut ipse sibi cratis convexa superni⁴

Construat hospitium multis habitantibus amplum

(... that the people of India consruct dweling places for themselves using the vault of the upper cranial cover: it is large enough for many inhabitants)

Geographical objects were duplicated in two other episodes, so that one name appeared twice in different areas due to scribal errors in the source manuscript. In both cases Theodericus preserved only one of those false homonyms, and in both cases he chose the wrong one.

Theodericus read Arethusa instead of Aretisa (Aretissa Barrington Atlas 89 F2), as in some of the extant Solinus manuscripts, including L (Leidensis Vossianus Q.37) and again G. When he described the lake Arethusa located somewhere in Armenia (^ Sol. 37.6 157,14 M), he found it necessary to comment that the lake had received its name from Sicily, and this addition proves that the wrong reading was not Theodericus' own error:

884 est lacus a Sicula nomen ducens Arethusa

(there is a lake which drove its name from Sicilian Arethusa)

However, Theodericus does not mention the famous Sicilian stream at all, though he carefully reports the marvels of Diana and Helbesus, Sicilian rivers which are referred to by Solinus immediately after Arethusa (Th. 209-212 ^ Sol. 15.16 51,7-14 M).

Similarly, a false Tygris emerges in Libya (Th. 674 ^ Sol. 17.4 90,8 M) because Theodericus read Tigrim instead of Nigrim in his source manuscript, again in accordance with the codd. LG. Theodericus does not mention the true Tigris, a great river which was known as one of the rivers of Paradise, but we certainly know that he carefully read the related entry in the Collectanea, where Solinus explains the etymology of the river Tigris: ita enim nominantMedi sagittam (Sol. 37.5 157,14 M). From this etymological note Theodericus borrowed the comparison of the tiger (an animal found in Hyrcania) and the arrow, which is absent from the original description of the tiger by Solinus:

341 fertur ut emissa nervo stridente sagitta

(it rushes like an arrow shot by a screeching string)

Finally, Theodericus twice mentions an unheard of nation of Egibanes. This resulted from a trivial phonetic error, the correct form being Aegipanes (Aiyinaveg), but in this case the wrong reading is not attested in Solinus' manuscripts recorded by Mommsen. It seems unlikely that the accidental error was repeated twice independently, and unification of the wrong spelling was probably due to deliberate efforts by Theodericus. Like the other textual errors examined in this section, the Egibanes prove that De mirabilibus appeared as the result of a careful reading of the Collectanea.

Theodericus: The spaces of the marvelous

The World of Theodericus is clearly divided in two parts: the Our World of the poet is shown in the Prologue and Epilogue, where Theodericus is shown speaking with his friend Stephanus and working hard on the abridgement of the Collectanea. The Other World existed on the pages of Solinus' manuscript as a mixture of Theodericus' poetic imagination and Solinus' encyclopedic learning.

The poet deleted almost all geographical data from his abridgment, and no geographical reality supported the selection of matter in De mirabilibus. Nonetheless, Theodericus strictly observes a global border of crucial importance: the space he totally ignores in his narrative closely corresponds to the limits of the Christian World as it was established ca. 1100, where Byzantine Greece and Italy (in large part Byzantine too) formed a transitory zone. Arab Sicily was conquered by the Normans by 1072, and it belongs to the zone covered by De mirabilibus as a non-Christian country. Palestine and the entire central zone of the medieval Mappa Mundi is equally included in that Other World The density of monsters and marvels increased to the periphery, and monsters are generally located in the periphery of medieval maps [Mittman 2006: 45-59]. The Our World is carefully silenced by Theodericus in the body of the poem, but apart from Christian Europe there is another silenced zone in De mirabilibus which is situated in the Far East: this is the eastern periphery of the World where the medieval Paradise was usually located See inter alia the evidence collected in [Mittman 2006: 48].. Again, Theodericus carefully avoided the theme of the Terrestrial Paradise, and he said nothing about the rivers of Paradise, which were one of the key elements of medieval cosmology (see the river Tigris above).

It must be added that no special geographical zone of marvels was established by Pliny or Solinus. Classical thought viewed marvelous events and things as immanent to Nature The illuminating study of the history of the notion of miracle can be found in [Grant 1952]., and Pliny collected mirabilia throughout the World as precious embellishments of the Roman Empire.

The Other World described by Theodericus was inhabited by strange, often dangerous, and suspect creatures, but he knew that, though segregated in space, monsters were a part of the World created by God. This idea is explicitly expressed in the Prologue, where the poet says that God is a mirabile who creates all mirabilia:

38 que volo mirari mirabilis ipse creasti

(Thou, admirable, created what I want to admire)

Monsters and other marvelous things were seen as manifestations of God's will and Providence See [Friedman 1981; Verner 2005] for the problem of adapting mirabilia to the theological frame. In a personal conversation, prof. Isabel Velazquez has pointed me to the fact that the problem was known to Isidore (11.3.4)., and one might expect that Theodericus would pay attention to this aspect of his theme, but he again says nothing explicitely. I would suggest that the apparent silence provides a key for understanding the significance of the poem, which was probably intended to be read as a multilevel allegory Cf. the poem De lapidibus by Marbode of Rennes, which was supplemented by an allegorical commentary soon after it was written [Riddle 1977: 125-129]..

I would refer here to a large description of elephants (Th. 398-438), which has two allegorical dimensions clearly highlighted by the poet.

The first is the moral allegory, by no means is it hidden. Elephants are good animals of the medieval bestiary, and their moral virtues are described at length by Theodericus, who pays special attention to the `marriage of elephants'. The sexual behavior of animals and exotic peoples is often reported by Theodericus, but the marriage of elephants has a particular significance: it is widely attested as a theological, or so called anagogic allegory which should induce a spiritual meaning. A pair of male and female elephants could represent Adam and Eve [Hassig 1995: 131-133]. The section ends with the scene of a fight between elephants and dragons, where the elephant is identified with Christ. The allegorical meaning of this episode is self-evident, but it is additionally emphasized by the numerous Christological allusions listed in Appendix I.



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Информация об авторе

Александр Евгеньевич Кузнецов доктор филологических наук доцент, филологический факультет, кафедра классической филологии, Московский государственный университет им. М.В. Ломоносова Россия, сотрудник, Эйнштейн-Центр Chronoi, Свободный университет Берлина (Freie Universitat Berlin)



Appendix 1. Elephant as Christ

426.	Hi s^vos hostes patiuntur s^pe dracones	-- Adsextam, AnalectaHymnica 51, 16, s. 8: Advenus omnes impetus 11 Quos saevus hostis incutit
427. 428.	Qui circumventos astu spirisque ligates Solinus 25, 10-15 p. 112,18 113,7 M ^ Plinius 8, 32-34 denique insidiae hoc astu praeparantur... primumque pedes nodis ligant, ut laqueatis cruribus inpediant gradiendi facultatem: nam elephanti, nisi praeventi hac spirarum mora, vel arboribus se vel saxis applicant, ut pondere nitibundo attritos necent angues ... ob id a draconibus avidissime torrente captantur aestu ... Cruribus et pedibus compellunt figere gressus	-- Gregorius Turonensis, Historia Francorum, 6, 5 p. 270, 13, Krusch-Levison: Deus hominem creavit innoxium, sed astu serpentis circumventus, praevaricator praecepti factus est: et ideo a sede paradisi eiectus, mundanis laboribus deputatus est; qui per mortem Unigeniti Dei Christi Deo reconciliatus est Patri.
429. 430. 431.	Ne valeant truncis se vel coniungere saxis* Et perimant hostes collisos mole terentes* His nam deceptis astu sollertior hostis	-- Hieronymus, Dialogus contra Luciferianos, PL 23, 170A: ... haererem certe trunco crucis, necprius amitterem, quam misericordiam impetrarem
432.	Absorbet largum captati sanguinis haustum	-- Cantus in dedicatione ecclesiae, Analecta Hymnica 51, 103, s. 3: Haec domus rite tibi dedicata 11 Noscitur, in qua populus sacatum 11 corpus assumit, bibit et beati 11 Sanguinis haustum
433. 434.	Donec ad extremum terra se proicit ipsum Emoriens elephas exhaustus sanguine venas	-- Act. 13, 47: ut sis in salutem usque ad extremum terrae (Isa. 49, 6)
435. 436. 437. 438.	Vincens victorem quem casu proterit hostem Quorum conspersa permixto sanguine terra Fiet cinnabaris vulgo cruor ipse draconis Dictus picture satis utilis et medicine	Alcuinus, Epistola CCII. De comparatione numerorum (PL 100 477B: Tribus modis Adam tentatus eft... Tribus his modis (iterum) Christus tentatus eft, et vicit victorem Adae. Cyprianus, lesus Nave, 395: desuper incurrens securum proterit hostem 11 omnia caede madent tellusque infecta cruore est.



Appendix 2. Correlation between the geographical parts of the Collectanea and De mirabilibus

Braces indicates items where Theodericus does not provide a geographical location.

f marks the textual errors discussed in § 10.

Solinus §§	Solinus: Regions of the Geographical Part	Theodericus: Terrae	Theodericus: Gentes
	Italy1: from Liguria to Sicily
2.19	Italy, general description	--
2.24	primus Eropae sinus
2.24	secundus Europae sinus
2.26	Memorabilia of Italy
		[Medicines]
2.35	Italia lupos habet	{cauda lupi: 170
2.40	Cicadae apudReginos multae	--
2.45	Insula Diomedis	--
2.41	Ligusticum mare	^quora Ligustrica: 179
2.51	Italy2: Italicus excursus
2.51	Dalmatia, Illyricum
3.1	the Islands near the western shore of Italy	--
3.2/3	Corsica	--
4.1	Sardinia	Sardonia herba: 184
		[Waters]
5.1	Sicily	Sicula ora: 195
5.9	Aethna	^thna: 202
	--	^thnensis campus: 207*
5.16	Arethusa	--
5.16	Diana	fons Dian^: 209
5.17	Helbesus	Helbesus: 211
5.17	Himeraea	Hemereus: 213
5.18	sal Agrigentinus	Agrigentinus sal: 218
5.18	Aethna: sal purpureus	^thna: sal purpureus: 220
5.20	Halesina regio	fons Alisin^: 221
5.21	Gelonium stagnum	Gelonium: 225
5.24.	Ager Agrigentinus	Ager Agrigentinus: 228



[Balcan region: Dalmatia, Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia. The region, which was coverd by the province ofIllyricum, is described by Pliny (3.141-150) as a side route from Histria to Moesia. It is entirely omitted by Solinus. A short list of the areas of Illyricum is inserted in the section on Gallia:]

7.1 7.2	Tertius Europae sinus Greece: from Epirus to Thessaly Epirus: a miraculous spring	fons Epiri: 237
7.3/4	Achelous	Achelous: 241
7.5	Greece: from Patrae to Magnesia in Thessaly	--
9.1	from Thessaly to the Propontis Macedonia	--
10.1	Thrace	--
10.17	Propontis	--
10.21	Propontis: Abydos and Sestos	[moved to the
11.1	Aegean Islands and Crete	section related to 12.2]
11.3	Crete	--
11.15	Euboea1: Carystos	[no unifying theme] Caristos: 248
11.17	the Cyclades	--
11.24	Euboea2	--
11.26	the Islands	--
11.33	Lemnos, Myrina, Athos	Lemnos, Myrina,
12.1 12.2	quartus Europae sinus Hellespontus: Xerxes' bridge	Athos: 250-253 Hellespontus:
13.1	from Hellespontus to Scythia Hister	Xerxes' bridge: 254 Abydos and Sestos: 256 (transferred from 10.21) [The dolphin]
13.2	Pontus1	--
15.1	Borysthenes apud Neuros	--
15.2	Nations of Northern Scythia Neuri	[Marvelous nations] Neuri: 298
15.3	Geloni	[Geloni: 302]
15.3	Agathyrsi	[Agathyrsi: 303]**
15.4	Anthropophagi	Andropophagi 305
15.5	Chalybes. Dahae	--
15.5	Albani	Albani: 308
15.13	Essedones	Essedones: 326
15.14	Scythi	--
15.17	From Pontus1 to Hyrcania1 Dioscoridas, urbs Colchorum	--
15.18	The Caspian region: general description,	Euphrates -- Araxes
15.20	Araxes, Euphrates are mentioned Arimaspi1	-- Caspius: 333 monoculi
15.20	Riphaeum iugum	Arimasri: 335 Riphei: 335
15.22	Asiatica Scythia (grypes)	--
15.23	Arimaspi2 (grypes)	--
16.1	Hyperborei	--
17.1	Arimphaei	--
17.3	Cimerii	--
17.3	Amazones		--
17.3	a channel from Caspium mare to Scythicus Oceanus		--
	From the Far North back to the South (magnis spatiis intercedentibus)	[Marvelous animals]
17.4	Oxus		--
17.4 18.1	(HyrcaniaJ Hyrcani (tigres) Hyrcania1 (pantheres) Pontus2	Hircania (tigres): 336	Hircani (pantera): 342
19.4	mare Caspium2		--
19.6	from Pontus to insula Abalcia: nations of Abalcia region:		--
19.7	Hippopodes		Hippopodi: 352
19.8	Phanesii		Phanesii: 353
19.9	animals of Scythia		--
	Germania: from mons Saevo to Rhine		--
20.1	Germania: a general description		--
20.3	Saltus Hercynius	animals of Hircinia: 373
20.7	Germania from Gangavia insula to Rhine		--
21.1	Gallia from Rhine to the Pyrenees	--	--
22.1	Britannia1	--	--
21.2	The eastern neibours of Gallia: Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia are listed	--
22.2	Hibernia	--	--
22.9	Thyle	--	--
22.10	Britannia2	--	--
23.1	Hispania	--	--
23.5	Lusitania	--	--
23.13	Gaditanumfretum, an overview of the Oceanus	--	--
24.1	Excursus from Hispania to Libya, the Pillars of Hercules a general description of the African continent	--	--
24.6	Sala oppidum	--	--
	Libya: the Mediterranean zone from the Atlas to Cyrene
24.7	Atlas mons: Aegipanesj	Athlas: 393	f Egibanes: 395
25.1	Tingitana: elephants	{elephants: 398
25.16	Caesarea in Numidia	--
26.1	Numidia	--
26.3	Numidici ursi	{bears: 439
27.1	Africa and Carthage
27.13	animals of Africa: lions, etc.	{lions: 457
27.27	snakes of Africa	Africa, serpentes: 525 remains of a basilisk preserved in Pergamon: 564
27.38	Syrtes	Syrtes, Cyrene 580
27.41	Psylli		Psylli: 589
27.44	Cyrene	--
27.53	Cyrene: the basilisk, remains of a basilisk preserved in Pergamon	[moved to to the section related to 27.27]
				139
27.55	Libya, the inner zone: from Cyrene to `Ethiopia', and westwards to the Atlas The region of the Garamantes: an overview	[Marvelous nations]
28.1	gens Amantum	--
29.1	Garamantum oppidum Debris	Debris castrum: 597 gens Garamantum:
29.8	Gauloe insula	597 Gaulensis insula:
30.1	Aethiopes vs gentes Atlanticae	609 customs of Garamantes:
30.2 30.4	Garamantici Aethiopes Nomades, etc: a catalogue of peoples	625
30.8	Cynomolgi	Cynomolgi: 621
30.8 30.9	Artabatitae Meroe	Artabatiti: 622
30.10	Macrobii	Macrobii: 625
30.12 30.14	Monstruosae gentes Ethiopia: a detailed description, including: dracontia lapis	monstriferae gentes: 632 [Animals]
30.22	Nigrisfluvius: catoblepas	fTygris: 674
30.29 31.1	Aethiopici lupi Libya: the Oceanic periphery, moving to the East from the Atlas to Egypt	fithiopum lupus: 698
30.2	a catalogue of people	[Marvelous
31.1	Atlantes	nations] [moved to 31.3***]
31.3	Trogodytae	Trogodit^: 710 Athlantes: 716
31.4	Augilae	--
31.4	Gamphasantes	--
31.5	Blemyae	Blemiae: 720
31.6	Satyri	Satyrae: 722
31.6	Aegipanes2	Egibanes: 724
31.6	Himantropodes	Himandropodes: 727
31.6	Pharusi	--
32.1	Egypt and Nile: a detailed description, including	[Egypt and Arabia]
32.16	a note about `expirations' of Nile	Non spirat nebulas Nilus: 729
32.34	ficus Aegyptia	figiftia ficus: 784
32.36	palma Aegyptia	figiptia palma: 793
32.41 33.1	Alexandria Arabia: a digression from Pelusium to Arabia and back to Pelusium	mare Rubrum: 796
33.11 33.18	Phoenix precious stones of Arabia, including	Phoenix: Araps = Arabia: 811
33.21	androdamas	{andradamas: 831

From Pelusium to Palestine and Syria, up to the mons Cassius
34.1	an overview of Palestine and Syria	--
		[Judea and Syria]
31.2	lope	castrum Ioppe: 832
35.1	ludaea	Indcc regio: 844
35.1	lordanis	Iordanis: 845
35.1	Paneas	Paneas: 846
35.2	Asphaltites lacus	Asfaltites: 848
35.3	lacus Sara	--
35.3	lacus Tiberiadis	Tiberias: 853
35.4	Hierosolyma	Iherosolim: 856
35.4	Hierichus	Iherichus: 858
35.4	Calliroe	Calliroe: 860
35.7		Gomorrum,
		Sodomum: 876
35.9	Esseni
	Syria
36.1	a list of cities of Syria, including
36.2	Seleucia	Seleucia: 880
36.2	mons Cassius	mons Cassius: 881
	Armenia: the upper Euphrates and Tigris
37.1	a detailed description of the region,	--
	including
37.6	Aretisa lacus	lacusArethusa: 884
	the upper Mesopotamia and Persis
		[Stones]
37.7	a catalogue of Stones: Chaldei, Parthi	{sagada petra: 887,
	Persis	and other stones
	From Mesopotamia to the West: Asia
38.1	Cilicia	--
40,1	Asia (in narrow sense)	--
40.7	Phrygia	--
		[Animals]
40.10	Phrygia: bonachus	{animal bonachus:
		911
40.12	Ionia
40.20	Teuthrania	Theutrania: 919
40.21	Asia: Chamaeleon	Theutrania:
		chameleon: 919
40.25	Pythones come: ciconia	{ciconia: 940
41.1	Galatia	--
42.1	Bithynia	--
43.1	Ora Pontica	--
44.1	Paphlagonia	--

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