Vocational interests among Polish and Slovenian students of management

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Vocational interests among Polish and Slovenian students of management

D. Ochnik, A. Arzensek

As vocational interests are a stronger predictor of future vocational success than personality or IQ, it is important to understand the vocational interests of upcoming leaders. In this scientific paper we aimed at expanding the current understanding regarding the vocational interests variability across cultures and gender by analysing gender and nationality based differences among Polish and Slovenian samples. 226 undergraduate students enrolled at the Faculty of Management in Poland and in Slovenia took part in the study. The Vocational Potential Inventory was applied in the study. The gender differences were more evident in the Polish group, with Polish women having stronger pro-social interests compared to Polish men, while Polish men showed stronger interests in leadership. Within the Slovenian sample, no statistically significant differences in vocational interests emerged. Female students in general had higher pro-social and lower technical interests. Therefore, the gender effect reflected the stereotypical gender role, women - people orientated and men - things orientated. Concerning the nationality effect, there were three clusters revealed, showing differentiation with regard to nationality. The clusters consisted of a Slovenian female group, a Polish female group and a male group. This means that cultural differences are stronger in the female group compared to the male group. Clustering revealed the male group having the strongest technical interests and Polish women the weakest. Implications of results are provided.

Choosing the right vocation is an important developmental task that has to be tackled during adolescence and early adulthood. This is a sensitive process that has implications for the individual's future career options and well-being. In the process of deciding which higher education program to choose, students opt for one that is consistent with (among other factors) their vocational interests' profile.

Vocational interests are «relatively stable individual differences that influence behaviours through preferences for certain work activities and work environments» (van Iddekinge, Putka, & Campbell, 2011, p. 14), and are a strong predictor of career-related outcomes (Almeida, Ahmetoglu, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2014; Vardarli, Ozyurek, Wilkins-Yel, & Tracey, 2017; Volodina & Nagy, 2016). For example, they play an important role in job satisfaction (Vock, Koller, & Nagy, 2013), turnover (van Iddekinge, Roth, Putka, & Lanivich, 2011), and long term employment patterns (Wille, Tracey, Feys, & De Fruyt, 2014). Furthermore, in their meta-analytic study Nye, Su, Rounds and Drasgow (2012) showed that vocational interests are valid predictors of work and academic performance. Su, Rounds, & Armstrong (2009) showed vocational interests predict gender differences in work preferences. Empirical findings also demonstrate interests are reliable predictors of academic persistence, academic success, and college graduation (Tracey & Robins, 2006; Tracey, Allen, & Robins, 2012).

Sociocultural factors have an impact on vocational interests of both genders (Ott-Holland, Huang, Ryan, Elizondo, & Wadlington, 2013). According to Bubany and Hansen (2011) and Lechner, Sortheix, Obschonka, & Salmela-Aro (2018), sociocultural factors (e.g., gender stereotypes, gender role, socialization) affect the development of vocational interests as well as choices individuals make regarding their vocation. Moreover, Lubinski (2000, p. 421) stated sex differences in interests are «perhaps the largest of all sex differences on major psychological dimensions.» Paessler (2015) and Babarovic, Devic, & Burusic (2019) hypothesized gender differences in vocational interests are also a major contributing factor to a gender diversity gap in occupation fields, still traditionally occupied by men (in particular the STEM disciplines - science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) (Botella, Rueda, Lopez-Inesta, & Marzal, 2019).

As data originating from a single culture challenges the generalizability of research results (Ion, Nye, & Iliescu, 2019), we aimed at expanding the current understanding regarding the vocational interests variability across cultures and gender by analysing gender differences among Polish and Slovenian samples. We investigated whether gender differences in vocational interests exist between Polish and Slovenian students of Management. It is important to understand what Management students expect from their career and what vocational interests they have in order to be able to support them (Stone, Padron, Wray, La Lopa, & Olson, 2017). To date no studies have investigated vocational interests in the Slovenian sample of Management students. In addition, no comparisons have been made in career related constructs among Polish and Slovenian students of Management in order to study gender differences.

In order to understand the context of vocational interests among Polish and Slovenian students of Management, we first examine the vocational interests of young adults; we then present the relationship between gender social norms and vocational interests in order to explain gender differences in interests, and, thirdly, we analyse sociocultural context of vocational interests.

Vocational Interests in Young Adults

It is important to study vocational interests in young adults in order to understand their educational and career choices (Volodina & Nagy, 2016) and to predict their vocational motives (Bergner, Kanape, & Rybnicek, 2019). Individuals more likely choose work settings that are compatible with their personal characteristics (Almeida et al., 2014; Kowalski, Vernon, & Schermer, 2017). Vocational interests are developed during childhood and adolescence but may change throughout life span. Research (Bounchard & McGue, 2003; Chamorro-Premuzic, 2011) shows that development of vocational interests is in part influenced by genes but also by various sociocultural factors during childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The Individual's experience in different interest-specific domains also plays an important role in the interests' development; the experience of success in a certain sphere reinforces interest in that sphere and a failure diminishes interest. An enhanced interest normally leads to further engagement in that sphere. This results in more congruent vocational interest profiles over the years (Vock et al., 2013; Hirschi, 2010).

Vocational interests become more stable with age (Paessler, 2015; Ion et al., 2019; Schultz, Connolly, Garrison, Leveille, & Jackson, 2017). When individuals are in their late 20's, the development of vocational interests generally stabilizes. However, in this stability significant individual differences exist (Lubinski, Benbow, & Ryan, 1995; Vock et al., 2013). As Low & Rounds (2007) hypothesise, stabilisation of interests is connected to cognitive maturation, to influences from educational and vocational systems and to decreased restrictions from the environment.

Gender Social Norms

Research has shown that there is a divergence among men and women regarding vocation interests (Bagheri, Akmaliah, & Pihie, 2014; Volodina & Nagy, 2016; Nagy, Trautwein, Baumert, Koller, & Garrett, 2006; Su et al., 2009; Ion et al., 2019). Typically, females prefer social and artistic activities, whereas males prefer conventional, realistic and investigative activities (Vock et al., 2013; Mustata, 2014; Ion et al., 2019). In their research, Lawson, Leeb, Crouter, & McHale (2018) found that boys and men desired and entered male-typical vocations from middle childhood to young adulthood (girls and women were less gender-typical in vocational choices in young adulthood), suggesting that males were possibly restricting their vocations from childhood and that women and men might have different trajectories of their vocational aspirations' development.

The development of vocational interests is influenced by socialisation processes. Primary and secondary education, factors such as parental expectations, role modelling, educational experiences and exposure to media, may shape the individuals' view of what professional activity is expected and desired in the society Social role theory implies that gender differences in vocational interests occur from different roles men and women have in the society (Bubany & Hansen, 2011). While women may be traditionally encouraged in activities that involve caring for others, helping, counselling and teaching, men may be assigned to activities that involve working with objects and leadership. Role expectations may also differ for men and women in terms of women being less encouraged to pursue professions that involve working with objects and leadership, while men might not experience such restrictions. In line with this, a greater male diversity in vocational interests is expected in more traditional societies, while in a more egalitarian society smaller gender differences in the interests' variability are expected.

However, meta-analytic research findings indicate a decrease in gender differences in vocational interests across cohorts of individuals born in different decades (Bubany & Hansen 2011; Hansen, 1988). Also Mustata (2014) did not support the existence of differences in gender-related vocational interests in the sample of adolescent students.

Moreover, a considerable increase in enterprising interests of women was found (Bagheri et al., 2014). The tendency in modern society is to adopt attitudes irrespective of their biological gender (Mustata, 2014), so women and men can pursue a challenging profession or successfully integrate in the opposite sex dominated fields.

Cultural Context of Vocational Interests

Gender differences in vocational interests may vary across cultures according to culture-specific gender role expectations (Atitsogbe, Moumoulab, Rochata, Antoniettia, & Rossier, 2018). Expectations regarding occupational choices may still be culturally bound. In their research, Ott-Holland, Huang, Ryan, Elizondo, & Wadlington (2013) analysed how collectivism and gender egalitarianism moderate the relationship between interests and personality. In collectivistic cultures, individuals might sacrifice their personal goals for collective goals. Familial expectations and family history may dictate career choices of their members and not dispositions of individuals. Consequently, vocational interests of individuals in collec - tivistic cultures might be more shaped by family dynamics.

In a study by Ott-Holland, Huang, Ryan, Elizondo, & Wadlington (2013) gender egalitarianism was defined as the degree of gender inequality and gender stereotypes in a culture. It is assessed by a degree of gender equality in encouraging educational paths and professional development. In more gender egalitarian societies, women are not restrained from certain male-dominated careers, but this is not necessarily mirrored in female dominated professions being adopted by men, as shown by Wood & Eagly (2010). In contrast, less gender egalitarian cultures encourage men to follow their vocational interests, while women's interests might be more directed towards more traditionally feminine activities. In areas where gender roles are not prescribed, women and men might be equally represented. Ott - Holland, Huang, Ryan, Elizondo, & Wadlington (2013) found that connections between personality and vocational interests were less visible in collectivistic cultures. Contrary to their expectations, results also indicated gender differences might be existent in egalitarian cultures.

Models of Vocational Interests

The most esteemed model of vocational interests is the RIASEC model (Holland, 1997). It examines the linkages between individuals and their environments. Individuals prefer work activities and work environments that fit their personality traits, competencies, life goals and values (Lechner, Sortheix, Obschonka, & Salmela-Aro, 2018). According to Holland (1997), six types of individuals and environments are: realistic (R - working with things and gadgets), investigative (I - scientific work), artistic (A - aesthetic interests and self-expression), social (S - people contact and helping professions), enterprising (E - entrepreneurship and the corporate world), and conventional (C - office work and well-structured tasks). Usually interest types are depicted in a hexagon form. The closer different types are to each other in a hexagon, the more related they are conceptually and empirically (Babarovic et al., 2019). Despite the general support, cross-cultural studies of the Holland's hexagonal structure of types showed to be ambiguous in a sense that it did not fit the data well for non-US samples (Vardarli et al., 2017; Ott - Holland et al., 2013).

In this study the Contextual Model of Vocational Interests (Ochnik, 2017) has been applied. The instability of vocational interests constituted the fundamental premise of the model. The intensity of the interests may be shaped by a broad spectrum of cultural factors (the most external layer), such as culture's gender dimension or social expectations, in particular in social gender roles performed by women and men of various ages. The model also emphasizes the role of individual factors, such as personality or entrepreneurial attitude, in shaping vocational interests and reaction to socio-cultural determinants (Ochnik, 2018). The Model of Vocational Interests introduces the concept of the vocational social clock, by presenting the dynamics of vocational preferences in regard to age and gender. Age and gender are determined by sociocultural factors, especially by social roles, particularly in prosocial and leadership vocational interests (Ochnik, 2017; Ochnik & Rosmus, 2016). This study aims to examine the cultural context of vocational interests in Polish and Slovenian students in regard to gender.

In this article we aimed to expand the current understanding regarding the vocational interests variability across cultures and gender by analysing gender and nationality based differences among Polish and Slovenian samples. Since vocational interests are congruent within a particular field of study, it was crucial to compare young adults from different cultures (Poland and Slovenia) but within the same field of study. That allowed us to explore a sole culture's effect among students of Management. Exploring students in this particular field of study is of high importance, since those students are future European leaders (Ochnik & Blazkova, 2019). Gender was an additionally introduced variable, as gender inequality is a vital aspect related to leadership (Grant Thornton, 2017).

Method

The Vocational Potential Inventory by Ochnik & Rosmus (2016) was used. The measurement consists of two sections: Skills and Traits. Respondents scored their skills on a 4-point scale, and traits on a 5-point scale. In total, the tool is comprised of 100 statements, 50 of these in the first section encompassing self-assessment of skills, and further 50 pertaining to traits in the second section.

On the basis of vocational tasks' division into two dimensions: Data/Ideas, and Things/People (Prediger, 1999), five key types of vocational preferences emerged: Pro-social, Creative, Technical, Leadership, and Methodical. The analysis of each of the types encompasses 10 skills and 10 traits. All scales scored a satisfactory Cronbach's a, above 0.70: Pro-social - 0.703; Leadership - 0.75; Creative - 0.79; Technical - 0.75; Methodical - 0.74, respectively (Ochnik & Rosmus, 2016). The measurement turned out to be highly theoretically reliable with regard to personality traits and Holland's Model of vocational interests (Ochnik, 2017, 2018; Ochnik, Stala, & Rosmus, 2018; Ochnik & Rosmus, 2016). A conventional paper - and-pencil method was carried out in the study. Purposive sampling was used. Principles of voluntariness and anonymity were respected during the study.

The sample

The total of 226 students of Management, including Polish (n = 108) and Slovenian (n = 118) samples. The number of female students was 142 (62%) and 88 (38%) male students (see Table 1).

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Vocational Interests Types with Regard to Gender and Nationality

Gender effect is statistically significant as shown by a two-way ANOVA, F (1, 222) = 4.97, x² =.022, p =.027. The strength of this effect is weak. Female students rated their pro-social interests higher than male students did. The nationality effect as well as the gender-nationality interaction turned out to be insignificant (p >.05) (Figure 2).

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

Figure 1. Mean ranks of Pro-social, Leadership, Creative, Technical, and Methodical Vocational Interests in Polish and Slovenian Students of Management with Regard to Gender

Leadership type

A two-way ANOVA showed that gender effect, nationality effect, as well as the gender-nationality interaction for the leadership type of vocational interests, turned out to be insignificant (p >.05).

Creative type

A two-way ANOVA showed that gender effect, nationality effect, as well as the gender-nationality interaction for the creative type of vocational interests, turned out to be insignificant (p >.05).

Technical type

Gender effect is statistically significant, as shown by a two-way ANOVA, F (1, 222) = 4.05, x² =.018, p =.045. The strength of this effect is weak. Male students rated their leadership interests higher than female students did. The nationality effect, as well as the gender-nationality interaction, turned out to be insignificant (p >.05) (Figure 3).

Methodical type

A two-way ANOVA showed that gender effect, nationality effect, as well as the gender-nationality interaction for the methodical type of vocational interests, turned out to be insignificant (p >.05).

Figure 2. Two-Way Analysis of Variance of Pro-Social Vocational Interests by Gender and Nationality

Figure 3. Two-Way Analysis of Variance of Leadership Vocational Interests by Gender and Nationality

The two-step cluster analysis has been conducted as to reveal homogeneity of groups. The Silhouette measure of cohesion and separation revealed fair fit (.40). The analysis showed three clusters. The ratio of size was 1.24 that denotes a similar size of clusters. Gender turned out to be the most important variable, the second variable was nationality. The technical type proved to be the most important variable type of vocational interests.

Group 1 consisted of Slovenian female students, with the weakest creative but medium technical, pro-social, leadership and methodical interests (compared to other groups). Group 2 consisted of Polish female students with the strongest prosocial but the weakest technical, leadership and methodical vocational interests. Group 3 consisted of male students (both Polish and Slovenian), with the strongest technical, creative, leadership and methodical but the weakest pro-social vocational interests (see Table 2, Figure 4).

The highest value of variable in the clusters

As the distribution of vocational interests was within one standard deviation, the one-way ANOVA has been carried out in order to confirm the significance of differences in vocational interests between clusters. It showed that the technical type differentiates significantly between clusters, F (2, 223) = 4.77, p =.009. Tukey's HSD post-test revealed that Group 1 and Group 3 scored significantly higher in technical interests compared to Group 2. There are no significant differences between Group 1 and Group 3 in technical interests. The pro-social, creative, leadership and methodical types of vocational interests proved not to differentiate significantly among the emerged clusters (p >.05).

To conclude, the cluster analysis allowed three groups to be identified: Slovenian Women, Polish Women and Men. Group 1 was comprised of Slovenian female students with technical interests higher than in Polish female students in

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Two-Step Cluster Analysis