Fred Fiedler’s contingency model revisited: 30 years later

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Fred Fiedler's contingency model revisited: 30 years later

Lester С. Reams

Annotation

fiedler contingency model leader

A historical review was conducted on Fred Fiedler's Contingency Model to determine how this model has been used over the past 30 years since 1980. Fred Fiedler's Contingency Model was created in 1967 to move the field of organizational research from analyzing traits and personal characteristics of leaders to assessing leadership styles and behaviors. The premise of the model is that the individual's leadership style is the result of their life experiences, making it a fixed characteristic that is extremely difficult to change. Over the years, this model has been used with the aim of improving its validity and reliability in a multitude of national and international organizational settings. The article begins with a brief review of Fiedler's background, progresses with a detailed description of Fiedler's Contingency Model, and chronicles Fiedler's Contingency Model's use in the past and the present from 1980 to 2022. As a result, two major implications were found. The first implication was that the frequent use of the model had strengthened its validity and reliability, where it was one of the models that were readily used in studies focused on organizational leadership. The second implication was that the findings from these studies were used to address leadership problems that the organization needed to resolve. Based on these implications, it is safe to conclude that this model will continue to be used in future studies, where it will be fascinating to see how the results from Fiedler's Contingency Model will benefit the organizations moving forward. Challenges facing many workplaces is the issue where supervisors' leadership style may not fit specific work situation which leads to conflict with their employees. Fiedler's Contingency Model provides a tool that can be used to identify and place supervisors in the best work situation where the supervisors' leadership style can be the most effective.

Keywords: Fiedler's Contingency Model, situational leadership, leadership styles, leadership behavior, Least Preferred Co-Workers Scale.

Анотація

Лестер К. Рімс. Контингентна модель Фреда Фідлера: перегляд через 30 років

Було проведено історичний огляд моделі непередбачених ситуацій Фреда Фідлера, щоб визначити, як ця модель використовувалася протягом останніх 30 років, починаючи з 1980 року. Модель непередбачених ситуацій Фреда Фідлера була створена в 1967 році, щоб перенести сферу організаційних досліджень з аналізу рис і особистих характеристик лідерів на оцінку стилів лідерства та поведінки. Передумова моделі полягає в тому, що стиль лідерства людини є результатом її життєвого досвіду, що робить його фіксованою характеристикою, яку надзвичайно важко змінити. Протягом багатьох років ця модель використовувалася з метою підвищення його обґрунтованості та надійності в багатьох національних і міжнародних організаційних умовах. Стаття починається з короткого огляду історії Фідлера, продовжується детальним описом моделі непередбачених ситуацій Фідлера та описує використання моделі непередбачених ситуацій Фідлера в минулому та сьогоденні з 1980 до 2022 року. У результаті було виявлено два основні наслідки. Перший наслідок полягав у тому, що часте використання моделі посилило її валідність і надійність, де вона була однією з моделей, які охоче використовувалися в дослідженнях, зосереджених на організаційному лідерстві. Другий висновок полягав у тому, що результати цих досліджень були використані для вирішення проблем лідерства, які організація повинна була вирішити. На підставі цих наслідків можна з упевненістю зробити висновок, що ця модель продовжуватиме використовуватися в майбутніх дослідженнях, де вона буде досить детальною, щоб побачити, як результати моделі непередбачених ситуацій Фідлера принесуть користь організаціям, які рухаються вперед. Проблеми, з якими стикаються багато робочих місць, полягають у тому, що стиль керівництва лідерів може не відповідати конкретній робочій ситуації, що призводить до конфлікту з їхніми співробітниками. Модель непередбачених ситуацій Фідлера надає інструмент, який можна використовувати для виявлення та розміщення керівників у найкращій робочій ситуації, де стиль керівництва лідерів може бути найефективнішим.

Ключові слова: модель непередбачених ситуацій Фідлера, ситуативне лідерство, стилі лідерства, лідерська поведінка, шкала найменш бажаних співробітників.

Introduction

At an early age, the author was exposed to Fiedler's Contingency Model by his mother, who used this model for her dissertation published in 1980 to complete her Doctor of Education (EdD). Thirteen years later, the author would use Fiedler's Contingency Model in his dissertation to complete the author's Doctor of Public Administration (DPA).

This model simplified the leader's characteristics in two orientations: Relationship-oriented and Task-oriented. One could then determine between the orientations where one tended to lean towards in their leadership styles. For the record, the author tended to be more relationship-oriented because it was much more important that the author gained the person's trust of his employees. The task could be easily learned. Although there were numerous other leadership theories and models, Fiedler's model provides a quite simple complexity that allows one to understand their own leadership style.

Over the years, the author has come across many leadership theories, and models, but has not heard Fiedler's Contingency Model mentioned in other studies. This led the author to wonder what had happened to Fiedler's Contingency Model over the years. The purpose of the article is to: (1) review Fiedler's Contingency Model, (2) identify where the model has been used in the past and in the present, and (3) summarize the implication of its use over the years.

Fred Fiedler's Background

Fred Fiedler was born in 1922 in Vienna, Austria to Victor and Helga Schallinger Fiedler. The Fiedlers immigrated to the United States and became United States citizens in 1943. During World War II, Fred Fiedler served in the United States Army from 1942 to 1945. Fiedler attended the University of Chicago, where he obtained his undergraduate degree and later a Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1949. Fiedler, in 1951, became a faculty member of psychology at the University of Illinois. From 1959 to 1969, Fiedler became the director of the Group Effectiveness Laboratory. Fiedler was later hired at the University of Washington Department of Psychology and the School of Business as a business and management psychologist. From 1969 until his retirement in 1992, he directed organizational research at the university.

Fiedler's Contingency Model

During his time at the University of Illinois, Fiedler focused on moving the field of organizational research beyond the confines of research on traits and personal characteristics of leaders, to leadership styles and behaviors. In 1967, the Fiedler Contingency Model was created. The purpose of this model was to assess and evaluate an individual's leadership in an organization (Fiedler, 1967).

Fiedler (1987) indicated that the premise of the model is that the individual's leadership style is the result of their life experiences, making it a fixed characteristic which is extremely difficult to change. Fiedler (1987) added that since leadership style is a fixed characteristic, a leader's effectiveness is based on the situation. Finally, Uta (2021) added that Fiedler argued that “Instead of trying to change one's leadership style, the organization should match a particular leadership style to a specific situation” [Uta 2021: 1].

Components of Fiedler's Contingency Model

Fiedler's Contingency Model is divided into three (3) components. The components are assessed and measured as the following:

Leadership Style

Fiedler (1987) developed the Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale (LPC) to measure an Individual's leadership styles. The LPC scale evaluates the individual's feelings towards one's coworker that the person least wants to work with at their organization. The LPC scale uses a pair of 8 to 20 bipolar adjectives, such as Pleasant and Unpleasant, which are divided between a scale range of one to eight. Completion of the scale consists of the individual circling the appropriate number on the scale that best describes the person they least wanted to work with at their organization. The number of bipolar adjectives used for LPC can be determined by the researcher Figure 1

Figure 1 Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale by SlideTeam Copyright 2023

The scoring for the LPC scale consists of a high of 64 or above, a medium of 58-63, and a low of 57 or less. A score of 64 or above means that the individual is relationship-oriented because relationship-oriented leaders have positive things to say about their co-workers. A score of 58-63 means that there is a balance between relationship and task-oriented. A score of 57 or less means that the individual is task oriented.

Situational Favorableness

Fiedler (1987) defined Situational favorableness as the level of support a work environment is for a team leader. Fiedler identified that there are three factors that can alter situational favorableness. These factors are the following. (1) Leaders-member relations which is the level of trust between the leader and their team. High level of trust results in a favorable work environment [Fiedler 1987]. (2) Task structure focuses on how tasks are structured and the level of clarity. Leaders that provide unclear and unstructured tasks are viewed as unfavorable. However, leaders that take the time to design structured and precise tasks are considered favorable [Fiedler 1987]. (3) Leader's position of power centers on the amount of authority a leader has over their subordinates. A high level of authority allows the leader to be able to control the team through reward or punishment [Fiedler 1987].

Matching style to the situation

Fiedler (1987) suggested that for a leader to be effective, it was best to match the leader's style to the right situation [Fiedler 1987]. Fiedler identified three kinds of situations. They are low-control, medium-control, and highcontrol. Fiedler (1987) defined low-control and high-control situations as those situations where the focus is getting the task done [Fiedler 1987]. Fiedler asserted that the leadership style that matches low-control and high-control situations is the task-oriented leadership style [Fiedler 1987]. While the leadership style that matches a medium-control situation is the relationshiporiented leadership style since the medium-control situation dealt with the leader being considerate and showing compassion during team interactions.

Fiedler's Contingency Model use in the Past and Present Fiedler's Contingency Model has been used by many researchers over the years since its inception. Often it takes the form of either using the Least Preferred Co-worker Scale or the entire model. Below is a summary of how Fiedler's Contingency Model has been used from 1980 to 2022.

1980

The Relationship between Educational Managers' Leadership Styles and Educational Philosophies Bennie P Reams University of La Verne

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that a relationship existed between educational managers' leadership styles and educational philosophies. The study also hypothesized that if a relationship were shown to exist, the leadership styles and educational philosophies were related to such demographics as age, years of experience in school management, and the number of years in the present assignment as an education manager. The education managers selected were 102 of the 125 doctoral candidates enrolled in the Department of School Management at the University of La Verne. These education managers were serving in various school administrative positions throughout California. The instruments used in this study were the Least Preferred Coworker Scale and the Ross Educational Philosophical Inventory (REPI) constructed by Colvin Ross. This study used the Pearson ProductMoment Correlation technique to determine if the relationships existed between educational managers' leadership styles and educational philosophies. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation technique results showed weak relationships between LPC scores and REPI categories. No correlations were found between the demographics variables of age, years of experience in school management, and the number of years in the present assignment as an education manager. The researcher concluded that the LPC and REPI measure different aspects of the educational managers' personality attributes.

1987

Behavioral Intentions and Esteem For Least-P referred Coworker: An Application of the Fishbein-Ajzen Theory of Reasoned Action, H. H. Busciglio

This study applied the theoretical outlook and methodology of the Fishbein-Ajzen Theory of Reasoned Action to the relationship between scores on Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale and leadership behavior. Specifically, behavioral intentions, attitudes, and other variables from Fishbein and Ajzen's theory were used to provide a test of Fiedler's “motivational hierarchy” hypothesis of the meaning of LPC scores.

Sixty-eight high-LPC and sixty-eight low-LPC subjects read scenarios describing hypothetical leadership situations of high, moderate, or low situational favorableness. Subjects then roleplayed the part of the leader in the story and indicated their relative intentions to use, and attitudes toward, styles of leadership along a continuum of highly relationship-oriented to highly task-oriented. Subjects also evaluated the “goodness” of various leadership-related outcomes and the extent to which they believed that a relationship or task orientation would lead to each outcome. The results indicated that the Theory of Reasoned Action is a useful tool in the study of preferences for the overall style of leadership.

1990

Job Stress and the Buffering Effect of Supervisory Support, Robert C. Cummins

This investigation examined the buffering model of social support with respect to the moderating effect of supervisory support on the relationship between job stress and job dissatisfaction for 96 employed graduate and undergraduate business students. Although a cross-sectional design was employed, results are consistent with the hypothesis that supervisory support acts as a stress buffer only for individuals who are relationship-oriented as measured by Fiedler's (1967) esteem for Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale. Implications for organizational interventions and for linking leadership theory with the stress-buffering model of supervisory support are discussed.

1991

The Relationship between Health Administrators' Leadership Styles and Role-Conflict Indicators Lester C. Reams University of La Verne

This study surveyed 303 health administrators of the Los Angeles County Department of Health to determine if a relationship operated between the health administrator(s): (1) leadership styles and role conflict indicators, (2) leadership styles and the demographic variables of gender, age, years in health administrations and years in the present position and (3) role conflict indicators and demographic variables mentioned previously. The study used Fred Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale and Osipow and Spokane's Occupational Role Questionnaire. (ORQ). The Pearson ProductMoment Correlation technique was used to determine if the relationship existed between (1) the LPC and ORQ, (2) LPC and the demographic variables, and ORQ and the demographic variables. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation technique showed weak relationships between LPC scores and the ORQ variable of Role Insufficiency and the demographic variable of age. There were no correlations found with the other variables. These results were verified using Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient Technique.

1992

Education, Community College, Education, Administration, Education, Teacher Training, Education, Higher, Education, Curriculum and Instruction, Forrester L. C. V Institute: The University of Texas at Austin

For this study, Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale was renamed the Least Preferred Student (LPS) Scale. This research investigated the relationship between age, gender, ethnicity, student evaluations, and college teaching years with LPS scores in outstanding American and Canadian community college instructors. Also examined was the relationship between the LPS and the Teaching as Leading Inventory (TALI), an instrument developed by George A. Baker (1989) at The University of Texas at Austin, categorizing teacher strategies. This study also explored the behavior of exemplary community college instructors across all octants of Fiedler's Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness.

Leadership style of construction managers in Hong Kong, Steve Rowlinson, Thomas K. K. Ho & Yuen Po-Hung

Hong Kong's construction industry is one of the most dynamic in the world and the Territory has a remarkable record of completing projects to budget in seemingly impossible times. Even though 97% of the population is Chinese, the Territory remains under British Colonial rule (until 1 July 1997), making Hong Kong a meeting point for Western and Eastern cultures. This mixture of cultures raises interesting managerial issues, and an issue particularly relevant to construction project management is leadership behavior style. This paper studied the leadership styles of Hong Kong Chinese construction managers by means of Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC scale and House's styles grid and compares these styles with those of their western counterparts. Hong Kong managers are found to be much more relationship-orientated than their western counterparts. The issue of the effect of situational variables on the style adopted is explored.

2005

Examination Of Fiedler Contingency Theory In Physical Education Departments And Faculties In Higher Education University, Javadian Sarraf N., Asgarian M., Khabiri Mohammad, Assadi H.

The purpose of this study was to validate and extend Fielder's Contingency Model for leadership effectiveness. This research extended the model into the physical education setting by studying the managers of physical education departments and faculties in Iran's higher education universities. Data were collected from 25 managers (100% of the total) and 145 academic members (81% of the total) of physical education departments and faculties. Leadership style by the managers' scores by the least preferred Co-Worker Scale (LPC) and situational favorableness based on leader-member relations and leadership effectiveness by the educational division scale (PED) performance were determined. According to Fiedler Contingency Theory, Hypothesis 1 predicted that task-oriented managers perform their best in favorable situations, Hypothesis 2 predicted that relationship-oriented managers perform their best in situations of moderate favorableness, and Hypothesis 3 predicted that task-oriented managers perform their best in unfavorable situations. The results supported the first hypothesis and did not confirm the second one. Since there was no unfavorable leadership situation, the third hypothesis could not be tested. It showed that in general there is not a total applicability of the theory to higher education. Also, it indicated a need for further research on the model using a more heterogeneous sample.

2011

Fiedler's Contingency Theory: Practical Application of the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale da Cruz, Maria Rosa Pires; Nunes, Antonio Joao Santos; Pinheiro, Paulo Goncalves

The present study aims at some considerations about leadership from the contingency perspective, and focuses on the theory of Fiedler, whose basic premise is that group performance is contingent depending on the interaction of leadership styles and situations favorable to the leader. Leadership is an issue that has aroused much interest among people and is probably one of mankind's most ancient concerns. Fiedler uses the distinction between taskoriented leadership style and relationship-oriented leadership style, relating these leadership styles to different types of situations, in order to determine the contingencies that make either style effective. Based on Fiedler's theory, a case study was applied in Cape Verde at the University of Beira Interior (CABOUBI) (association of African students from Cape Verde) to confirm the applicability of the measures advocated by the theory (Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale).

2012

The Effect of General Versus Specific Coworker in Directions on Fiedler's Least Preferred Coworker Scale Derrick Lottes

This study explored the effect of directions on the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale; specifically, this study tested whether thinking of a generalized least preferred coworker (General LPC) would yield lower scores compared to thinking of a specific least preferred coworker (Specific LPC). The data supported this hypothesis as responses to the General LPC yielded more critical LPC scores than did responses to the Specific LPC. The hypothesis that thinking of a generalized least preferred coworker would yield more stable result than would thinking of a specific least preferred coworker was not supported. Finally, the hypothesis that LPC scores would shift categories (e.g., shifting from task-oriented to relations-oriented) more when thinking of a specific least preferred coworker than when thinking of a general least preferred coworker was not supported. This study provides supportive evidence of the importance of using the original test directions during test administration.

2013

Thomas-Kilmann's Conflict Management Modes and their Relationship to Fiedler's Leadership Styles (basing on Estonian organizations) Sigrit Altmae, Kulno Turk, Ott-Siim Toomet

The purpose of this paper was to analyze the relationship between ThomasKilmann's Conflict Management Modes (CMM) and Fiedler's Leadership Style (LS) measures, both in the data, and from the theoretical perspective. Based on the conceptual similarities, the authors first propose the existence of a relationship between Thomas-Kilmann's CMM and Fiedler's LS measures, then establish the presence of the relationship, based on a dataset of Estonian managers. The results indicate that leaders who are task-oriented, according to Fiedler's model, tend to use more competing as the dominant CMM, while relationship-oriented leaders are more accommodating.

2018

Fiedler and Chemers Revisted; Understanding the Implications of the Least Preferred Co-worker Scale, K. R. Howell

The importance of succession planning and choosing the right candidate for the job cannot be underestimated. Having a conceptual framework for a clear and honest evaluation of a candidate for an open position is a key factor in choosing the “best” one. Fiedler and Chemers work provided one matrix for determining a fit in terms of their Least Preferred Co-Worker scale. It is easy to check off minimum thresholds for education and experience. The evaluation of “fit” for the job is a subjective and often laborious task. While many factors contribute to a person's success in their job, knowing the best fit for a given situation is credible and, many times, key assessment in selecting the eventual employee. The aim of this paper was to immerse the participants in a situation where they must determine the overall environment through the lens of Fiedler and Chemers' Contingency Theory and select a new leader for the organization.

2020

An Experimental Test of Fiedler's Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness: The Effect of Gender, Samantha De Souza

The present study was an experimental test of Fiedler's (1967) Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness across genders, as Fiedler's Contingency Model, has been tested largely with male participants. The model predicts group performance based on four key variables: leadership style, as indexed by the Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale, and three situational variables, leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. In situations characterized by high leader-member relations, and low position power, Fiedler predicts a negative correlation between a leader's LPC score and group performance when groups perform a structured task (Octant II), and a positive correlation when groups perform an unstructured task (Octant IV). The focus of the present paper is on the relationship between gender, leadership style, and group effectiveness across these two unique situations outlined by Fiedler (1967). Results were expected to show that the Contingency Model would accurately predict the negative correlation between LPC score and group performance in Octant II and the positive correlation in Octant IV for male-led groups. It was unknown whether the model would accurately predict these relationships for female-led groups based on previous literature. Results for both genders indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between group performance and the leader's LPC score. Overall, these findings suggest that the Contingency Model may not accurately predict the relationship between group performance and LPC score in two octants as laid out by Fiedler (1967) in modern leadership contexts.

2020

A Quantitative Study Examining Fielder's Leadership Contingency Theory LPC Rating Applied to the Foreign H-1b Work Visa Call Center Workers Vance, Thelma Estelle

This quantitative research study focused on US-based outbound call centers where the production floor was comprised of a preponderance of H-1B immigrant visa holders employed on a contract basis or temporary employee basis. The researcher's study focused on the problem of how the H-1B immigrant outbound call center agents assessed their manager's working style evaluated using Fielder's Leadership Contingency Theory Least Preferred Coworker as an eight-point Lippert scale. Contract or temporary employees working under the H-1B visa program were impacted by this problem. This study aimed to explore the relationship between the H-1B immigrant outbound call center agent's assessment of the agents' supervisor or line manager.

Two elements: Leadership style and situational favorableness, were used for this study. The study used a quantitative methodology with only 67 participants to support the IBM SPSS version 2.6 univariate statistical session. The researcher's chosen design used a survey instrument based on Fielder's Least Preferred Coworker eight-point Lippert scale that answered two research questions with their attendant hypotheses using the SPSS univariant sessions. The impact that a call agent's citizenship impacted the call center managers' Least Preferred Coworker score, and to what extent did the immigrant worker's profession impact the Least Preferred Coworker score?

2021

Higher Education Administrator Turnover: An Examination of Situational Leadership Styles

Employee turnover is a challenge for all organizations, including higher education. Public universities are losing staff members who are critical to the successful operation of these universities. Past research has shown that leadership style is a key factor that affects voluntary employee turnover. The purpose of this correlational study is to examine leadership effectiveness, leadership adaptability, and employee turnover intentions at a public university in Arizona. The Situational Leadership® model was employed as the framework for successful leadership and formed the basis for the survey questions. The study found a significant relationship between employees' voluntary turnover intentions and their supervisors' leadership effectiveness. This result suggests that as leadership effectiveness increases, employee turnover intentions decrease. The study found no relationship between employees' voluntary turnover intentions and their supervisors' leadership adaptability, or ability to use multiple leadership styles. Several recommendations were made for future research.

2022

Effective Leadership Style of Engineering Managers in the Government Construction Agency: National Irrigation Administration - UPRIIS Division V

This research is designed to determine the most utilized and effective leadership style based on the actual practices, preferences of the employees in construction agency. Personnel from several sections (i.e. Maintenance, Operations, Construction) of the National Irrigation Administration - UPRIIS Division V participated in the study, and data were acquired using a survey questionnaire. It consists of 40 questions designed to elicit information regarding leadership styles, performance, and outcomes. These extensive questionnaires were administered to provide context for the leadership style employed by the Engineering Managers of the National Irrigation Administration - UPRIIS Division V. The leadership style under consideration is based on four (4) contingency theories of leadership, namely The Fiedler's Model, Situational Leadership Theory, Path-Goal Theory, and Leader-member exchange (LMX) Theory. The study data was extensively evaluated, and each question was investigated to generate a successful outcome. The finding showed that the effectiveness of a leadership style is strongly tied to the leadership style used by immediate leaders and the maturity level of the workforce. Other factors to examine include the workplace environment, current events, the work arrangements used, and the well-being of the personnel.

Alternative Case

C. L. Peterson's study conducted focused on examining the influence of leadership on the twenty-year process of changing the general education core at a small, Christian, liberal arts university [Peterson 2005]. The study used three dominant leadership theories - Fiedler's Contingency approach, Bass and Avolio's Transformational approach, and Rogers' Change Agent approach to view the communication influence of the eleven leaders who led the institution through the curriculum change. Data used for this consisted of archived documents, interviews, and participant observation. The results showed that although a majority of the leaders exhibited Fiedler's attributes when compared to the other approaches, the leaders exhibiting a predominant Fiedler orientation were not successful in completing the change. The study also revealed that the effective leaders utilized a combination of Fiedler's high LPC orientation, transformational and transactional elements of Bass and Avolio's approach, and Rogers' change agent perspective as the situation dictated. Finally, the results showed that having an administrative task leader and a more interpersonally oriented leader directing the committee under him or her was the most successful combination of leadership roles. The researcher concluded that consensus-seeking and interpersonal skills were valued over task skills, even when the task was directly relevant to the mission of the institution.

Implications

Fielder was dissatisfied with the traditional theories surrounding psychology and leadership. The reason is that these theories and models did not take into consideration the various situations that managers would face in managing and leading an organization. Nor did the theories contemplate that a contingency plan should be included should a plan or decision not work.

Fiedler's main intent was to have his leadership concepts used frequently enough so that the instruments testing leadership styles could gain validity and reliability. This frequent use would allow Fiedler to determine if the validity and reliability of the instrument were improving. The fact that the author's mother and 10 years later, the author used Fiedler's Least Preferred Coworker Scale contributed to improving the validity and reliability. The addition of the concept of a contingency plan allowed managers to think of creative ways to achieve the same goal that prior plans failed to achieve.

In later years, Fiedler realized that some organizations were taking into account that a person's leadership style did not fit in with all work settings in an organization. Because of this, the organization experienced conflict between managers and employees. Fiedler's hope was that by identifying whether an individual's leadership style was relationship-orientated or taskoriented, the organization could screen a manager before the manager was assigned to a unit or section. By taking this approach, the organization could reduce or eliminate any conflict between the manager and staff.

In closing, the review of the past studies that used Fiedler's Leadership Theory appeared to strengthen it reliability and validity because tools such as the Least Preferred Coworker Scale have received continuous usage since its inception. The findings from each study appear to have been beneficial to the organization because the results were used to identify and correct a leadership problem at the organization. It will be fascinating to see how future use and results from Fiedler's Contingency Model will benefit the organizations moving forward.

References

1. Altmae, S., TOrk, K., & Toomet, O. (2013). Thomas-Kilmann's Conflict Management Modes and their relationship to Fiedler's Leadership Styles (basing on Estonian organizations). Baltic Journal of Management 8(1), 1-18. https://doi. org/10.1108/17465261311291650

2. Busciglio, H. H. (1988). Behavioral Intentions and Esteem for Least-Preferred Coworker. Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (Eds.). Theory of Reasoned Action-Theory of Planned Behavior. Tampa: University of South Florida.

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6. Fiedler, F. E. & Garcia, J. E. (1987). New Approaches to Effective Leadership, Cognitive Resources and Organizational Performance. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

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