Orthios as a Quality of Sound

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Orthios as a Quality of Sound

Nina Almazova

St. Petersburg State University,

Universitetskaya nab., Russian Federation

An attempt to interpret the famous ancient musical composition known as requires an analysis of all available evidence connecting with sounds. The most extensive description of this nome (Dio 1. 1) ascribes it a military (or generally stimulating) character. This conforms with a number of passages, where an sound `makes one stand up' to help, or to fight, i.e. it stimulates dynamic activity. Perhaps, then, this was the initial meaning of the adjective, from which it eventually morphed to mean `sonorous' or `piercing'. It seems that a sound could be made piercing and pervasive both by its volume and by its pitch, therefore as a quality of sound frequently correlates with `loud' and `high'. Nevertheless, a common interpretation that equates op0io^ with is unwary: the conventional metaphor in ancient Greek concerning a sound's pitch is (`sharp' -- `heavy'), whereas the spatial metaphor of vertical (`high' -- `low') is not reliably attested. Another characteristic of sound that our sources correlate with is `strained' (, which in its turn likely indicates loudness (but does not literally translate as either `high' or `swift') and physical effort on behalf of the performers, or else the ethos of a musical piece, which transmitted tension to the audience.

Keywords: Ancient Greek music, nomes, orthios.

ancient greek musical composition orthios nomos

This paper continuous my reflections on the famous ancient musical composition known as which could be both citharodic and auletic. I have already argued Almazova 2019. that, in spite of what Pollux (4. 65), Hesychius (o 1188 Latte) and the Suida (o 575) claimed, this name was unlikely due to the piece's rhythm. Modern scholars who do not accept Pollux' explanation typically believe that op0ioq was a characteristic of pitch. Graf 1888, 512-523; Smyth 1904, 167; Salazar 1954, 278; 302; Del Grande 1960, 424; Pintacuda 1978, 43; id. 1982, 17 n. 1; Barker 1984, 252. If true, then our understanding of the way in which pitch was indicated in ancient Greek must be called into question: the metaphor used for high pitch is generally agreed to be “sharp” () -- not “high”. Less numerous are those who link the name op0ioq to the overall character of the nome, and even here high pitch may be thought to form one of its characteristic features. Volkmann 1856, 70: corresponding in mood to Hom. Il. 11. 10-11; Crusius 1894, 52 n. 65: an ^{elevated genre, `hohe Liede' of Apollo; Weil-Reinach 1900, 105: “dans une tessiture claire, per^ante, cest- a-dire aigue”; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 1903, 90: “die laute Weise”; Olivieri-Pannain 1917, 122: “in una tessitura risonante, dignitosa, in un tono alto e solenne”; Schmidt-Stahlin 1929, 405 n. 7: “Plut.</sup> De Pyth. or. <sup>deutet pouoiKa 6p0a `die strenge', Aristid. or. 46 p. 383 Dind. `die richtige' Musik”; van Daele 1960, 13: “un hymne guerrier”; 136 n. 3: “vif et entrainant”. Gevaert 1881, 317 accepts all the variants at once: the nome of Terpander was named by rhythm, other orthian nomes by high pitch and elevated character.}

Let us analyse the testimonies which connect the word opGtoq with sounds. The most extensive description of the orthian nome is provided by Dio Chrysostomus (1. 1):

The story goes that when the aulos-player Timotheus gave his first exhibition before King Alexander, he showed great musical skill in adapting his playing to the king's character by selecting a piece that was not languishing or slow nor of the kind that would cause relaxation or listlessness, but rather, I fancy, the orthian nome which also bears Athena's name and none other. They say, too, that Alexander at once bounded to his feet and rushed for his arms like one possessed, such was the exhalation produced on him by the tones of the music and the rhythmic beat of the rendering. Translation: Cohoon 1971, 3 with minor changes.

Timotheus the aulete once played on his aulos the nome of Athena named orthios and stroke Alexander so much with the music that in the middle of the performance he rushed for his arms. And Timotheus said that royal aulos-music ought to be such.

This anecdote is first attested in Plutarch (de Alex. fort. aut virt. 335A), yet through a slip of memory See Almazova 2014, 524. he gets his names mixed up, identifying the aulete Antigenides instead of Timotheus and the chariot nome instead of the orthian. Shorter versions of the same story occur several more times in Byzantine literature, Suid. s. v. АЛі^ауброс (а 1122); s. v. Tp6Gєoс ©єрстауброи (т 620). Eustath. Comm. ad Hom. Il. 3, p. 137. 10-13. Maximi Planudis in Hermog. comm. in librum Пері ISewv vol. 5 p. 458 Walz. Anonymi in Hermog. comm. in librum Пері ідеш vol. 7 p. 903 Walz. Anna Comnena, Alexias 4. 1. 16; 9. 5. 1; Euthymius Tornices, Or. 1. 2; Michael Choniates, Or. 4. 24, vol. 1 p. 101 Lampros; Nicolaus Mesarites, Seditio Ioanni Comneni p. 34 Heisenberg. and the interpretation of as martial is attested in the scholia to Aeschylus. Sch. Aesch. Sept. 954b Smith: т6v 6^w vopov' т6v бpGlov каі еф paxnv паракЛ^то^ ф ката tov avтlпаЛшv хр^таї oi sv noAspw. The episode must have formed part of a more elaborate story of how Timotheus was able to manipulate Alexander's mood with his art and used it for the benefit of the king, preventing him from running to extremes. This story is recounted below by Dio himself (1. 6-7), and besides by Himerius (Orat. 16. 3 [p. 104. 12-19 Colonna]) and Sopater (Schol. ad Hermog. 5, p. 21. 19-21 Rabe = vol. 4 p. 50. 28 Walz). Its source is unknown, see Wegehaupt 1896, 46; Brussich 1995, 150. It certainly arose in philosophic circles, which adhered to the doctrine of an ethical impact of music, and can hardly claim any historical credibility. However, it cannot be ruled out that the story was invented by an author from the fourth or the third century BC who could still listen to the nomes being performed and judge them from personal experience, and he specifically chose the orthian nome because of its military (or generally stimulating) character.

Unfortunately, the interpretation of this nome in the Imperial period could equally be an айтоахебіаара. Those who never heard it and possessed no information had to resort -- just as we do now -- to considering the name `making stand up, to be suitable for an `incentive' nome. Besides, the grammarians may have been influenced by the widely-known Homeric verse in which Eris inspires the Achaeans to courage with a loud cry (Il. 11. 10-11):

There stood the goddess and uttered a great and terrible shout, a shrill cry of war, and in the heart of each man of the Achaeans she put great strength.. ,⁹

The shout of the goddess produced the same effect on the warriors as Timotheus' nome on Alexander -- hence perhaps an understanding of the orthian nome as calling for battle. Translation: Murray 1924, 481. Volkmann 1856, 70; 116 actually derived the name of the nome from this Homeric passage; their relation was also stated by Weil-Reinach 1900, 35; Olivieri-Pannain 1917, 116. Indeed, the scholia explain one case with the help of the other: the scholiast of Aristophanes references Homeric lines in his explanation of the orthian nome, while Eustathius cites the anecdote about Alexander when reviewing the cry of Eris in Homer. Sch. Aristoph. Ach. 16a (cf. Suid. s. v. op9iov vopov [o 575]). Eustath. Comm. ad Hom. Il. 3. p. 137.

9-15.

Late evidence on the orthian nome is inevitably conjectural: ancient commentators made the known meanings of op9iot; their point of departure and tried to choose one which would fit references to the orthian nome in classical texts. Due to classical texts and subsequent commentaries, the expression op9ioc; vopoc; in Late Antiquity and in Byzance formed part of educated rhetoric. Some authors share Dio's idea that the orthian nome was an inspiration to battle (see n. 6 above), whereas for others it was simply an ancient classical piece of music. A song of Apollo's swans: Philostr. Maior, Imag. 1. 9. 4. A solemn, extensive and elaborate festive song (a metaphor for a rhetoric speech): Himer. Or. 4. 4, 38 (cf. Volker 2003, 323; 325); Nicetas Choniates, Or. 3, p. 18. 1-2 van Dieten. A song of virtue: Themist. 'Ynep tov Xeyeiv 330.а 6; Sopater ap. Stob. 4. 5. 51; Anonymi miscellanea philosophica 10, p. 27. 4 Pontikos; Georgius Tornices, Or. 1, p. 75. 10 Darrouzes; Manuel Gabalas, Epist. B 35, l. 123 Reinsch; Gennadius Scholarius, Tractatus de processu spiritus sancti I, pars 2, p. 53. 24 Jugie-Petit-Siderides. Nonnus rather mechanically applies op9ioc; to musical sounds as an epithetum ornans: Dionys. 3. 242 op9ioc; є-теот^оіо Xupr|t; єХєХ((єто xopSrp 7. 51 E-reuTovon cpoppiyyoc; аpdааєтаl op9ioc; r|xA Apparently, this evidence is of no use for studying the orthian nome of the classical period. There is nothing else left for us but follow their example and consider the attested occurrences of op9iot; in the acoustic sphere.

First of all, there are passages supporting the version that an ; sound “makes one stand up”, i.e. stimulates dynamic activity. The earliest example of this is the passage from the Iliad cited above (Il. 11. 10-11). Scholiasts interpret as indicating loudness. Sch. Il. 11. 11: However, volume is separately designated by реуа, and and do not duplicate each other, it must follow that there was no implicit connotation of loudness in op9iot; -- at least not in the language of early epic poetry. Whereas реуа and 6eivov are used adverbially, the substantivated бp9lа is rather an inner object: that is, a shrill cry such as those which Homeric heroes often utter in a battle to inspire themselves and their companions.¹⁴ In fact it corresponds to a signal for combat.¹⁵

It seems that did have this technical meaning in the classical period. A signal for starting a battle played on a salpinx is twice mentioned by Euripides (Hera- clid. 830-831 ; Tro. 1266-1267 ). Appian describes the same practice when reviewing the era of Caesar and Pom- peius (BC 2. 11. 78: ), and in Lucian, an analogous signal of alarm is given with a horn by a satyr in a disturbed Dionysian troop (Bacch. 4: .).¹⁶

In the Homeric hymn to Demeter, means the shout of Persephone in the moment of kidnapping (Hymn. Hom. 2. 20: ). The same epic expression is reproduced by Apollonius of Rhodes, as his heroine calls the Argonauts from the opposite bank of the river (4. 70-71). In Pindar, Polydeuces appeals to Zeus in tears, praying to let him share his brother's fate (Nem. 10. 76: ). In Aeschylus (Cho. 732) the nurse recalls her hard labour and wittily names the baby's crying . In the “Trackers” by Sophocles (fr. 314. 46 Radt) Silenus refers to the call of Apollo, [у.¹⁷ All of these noises are strident, calling, making one rouse oneself, jump to one's feet, come to aid, succour.

Connecting this precise meaning of the adjective to the orthian nome is possible due to a pun in Aristophanes (Eccl. 739-741): sounds that wake sleeping people at an ungodly hour -- most probably the noise of a hand-mill¹⁸ -- are called ,¹⁹ and the hand-mill itself, ;. The joke is clearly based on paronomasia opGiot / opGpiot.²⁰ Admittedly the similarity of the word chosen to describe every-morning “music” to an actual musical term could in itself be amusing, never mind what the term actually meant. Still if the orthian nome was indeed similar to a reveille, the joke is much better. Thus, the See Il. 5. 302, 591; 8. 159, 321; 11. 15, 344, 530; 12. 125, 252, 377, 439; 13. 149, 332, 540, 755, 834, 835, 837; 14. 4, 147-152, 393-401, 421; 15. 312-313, 321, 353, 355, 384, 506, 590, 658; 16. 78-79, 378, 566, 785; 17. 263-266, 723; 19. 41, 424; 20. 48-51, 285, 443. Cf. Eustath, Comm. ad Hom. Il. 3, p. 137. 5-6: Дг|ХоІ 6є p тоіайтг| Tpt”Epi6ot pop та twv атpатr|Yшv кат' spiv dYaGpv ^кєХєйарата. 19-20: 'AvapGpot 6е, pToi dYpappaтоt, p рг^єїаа pop Tpt ката pйGov ”Epi6oc, raGansp єі каї aaXniYYot pv. Cf. also: Michael III, Oratio editialis, l. 509 Browning: to evuaXiov єі;г|Хєїго opGiov тє каї Awpiov; Nicephorus Basilaces, Progymnasmata p. 50. 48 Garzya: єяг|йХєі 6є o Boppat opGiov -- sinsv av Tit яєplaaXя^^єlv to evuaXiov. Cf. the description of Apollo's oracle in Aesch. Cho. 270-271: xpn®p°t кєХєй^ Tov6s dv6uvov nspav, / кdi;opGlа^wv noXXd. Meineke 1865, 201; Bachmann 1878, 16; Blaydes 1891, 171; Van Leeuwen 1905, 104; Huber 1974, 141-142. An allusion to a cock (Brunck 1783, Notae 42; Rogers 1902, 118-119; Ussher 1973, 179, 180) is impossible, since Aristophanes uses the feminine genus. Grammarians ascribed not only a semantic, but also an etymological relationship to opGpot and

opGiot (applied to getting up from the bed). (H)eren(n)ius Philo, De diversis verborum significationibus o 134: opGpot prv p npo dvoroXpc офа, raG' pv unvou dvаатаvтєt opGioi Ylv6pєGa. Eustath. Comm. ad

Hom. Il. 2, p. 641. 8-9: opGiout ev pprpa sWi xpp Tout aяou6a^ouс, dip' ou каї o opGpot Yiverni, ot sit єpYa ppat opGol. Blaydes 1891, 171, 172; Ussher 1973, 180. evidence of Aristophanes supports the characteristics of in Dio, as well as the presumption that the auletic and the citharodic orthian nome shared the same quality.

Stretching from the concept of `making stand up' to `stimulating' when considering a sound is, of course, only a hypothesis. The verb 6pGid(w with its compounds EnopGidZw and E^opGid^w attested in Aeschylus (see nn. 17, 23, 34) may suggest an image of `raising' = activating a sound, cf. Russian `поднять крик', Greek yoov opvupi (Od. 17. 46). Crusius 1894, 52 n. 65 considered the name `orthian nome' to be derived from this verb. Yet we can take for granted that, whatever the `stretch' was, in the end obviously acquired the meaning `sonorous, piercing'. Pindar's expression uppiv opGiav (Pyth. 10. 35-36: єифаріаи; тє раАтат' AnoAAwv / xaipsi, уєХа G' opwv uppiv 6pG^av Kvw5a\wv) might possibly mean cries of donkeys (Graf 1888, 513), but it is safer to exclude it from consideration, since this sense is not certain: Crusius 1894, 52 justly observes that opwv could hardly be said of sounds. For an alternative (most probably correct) interpretation see Sch. Pind. Pyth. 10. 55-56; Bernardini 1991, 155-159; Montanari 2004, s. v. opGiot (“lubricita degli animali che si erge”). The claim that 6pG^аv is a metrical term here (Zielinski 1883, 626-627) is completely unfounded (Graf 1888, 513; Crusius 1894, 52). Examples at our disposal are not restricted to emergency situations, be it calling for aid, or a fight. In particular, the epithet opGiot suits public announcements meant to attract general attention: Pindar applies it to praising the winner (Ol. 9. 109: ), and Sophocles and Euripides to the cry of a herald (Soph. El. 683: ; Eur. IA 94: ). In other cases it is used in deploring the dead (Pind. Thren. fr. 128e a2: ). Cf. the related verbs in Aeschylus: Pers. 687 6pGid(ovTЈt yooit (interpreted by the scholia as psydXwt GppvouvTst) and 1050 єяopG^а^Ј vuv yooit (explained as єяєктєтар^^ GppvEi and pЈyd\wt рба).

It is clear that a sound can be made piercing and pervasive both through its intensity, and through its pitch. Remarkably, scholiasts and lexicographers mention tension, loudness and high pitch in describing the same sounds: Phot. Lex. a 543: Thppvov' o'l ptv то o^u каі то avaтєтapЈvov* Nlк6aтpaтot бє то тpaxu каі яp6aavтєt тр aKofj с^єура; Hesych. Lex. o 934: 6^Ја- рєу&Ха. і^атєтар^а; o 1180: opGw- і^атєтар^а. Ё^Унадиата. рєуаХа; o 1186: opGiov- яp6aavтєt. avaтєтapЈvov; Tzetzes, Sch. Hes. OD 566 bis Gaisford: p opGoyop, p рєу&Х^ каі opGiwt Yowаа, фa^vєтal хє^тб^; Sch. Aesch. Pers. 389b: opGiov' рЈуа, o^u; Sch. Pind. Ol. 9. 163a, p. 305. 19 Dr.: opGiov Фpouааl' каі рЈуа; b: popaov avaтєтapЈvov; Sch. Eur. Or. 1384. 34-35 Schwarz: Thv йяаi;6vlov tov і^рат^ pxov avaтєтapЈvov тє каі o^uv ємар Sch. Apoll. Rhod. 322-323a, p. 152. 22-24 Wendel: атppvєt бЈ Ёат то avaтєтapЈvov каі рЈуа каі o^u каі 6idTOpov; Sch. Apoll. Rhod. 70, p. 266. 18 Wendel: opGur avU тoй єяlтєтapЈvwt, pєYd\wt; Sch. Lucian. Bis Acc. 11: npot то opGiov' avU тoй єяі то рє!!^ каі o^u тр; ipwvpt. apparently these features often combine. Therefore, in almost all the cases considered above the meaning `loud' could also be postulated for opGiot, and only the passage from the Iliad provides a reason to doubt it.

Frequent correlation of this characteristic with high pitch is also understandable. Still a widespread interpretation simply equating Smyth 1904, 167; Lasserre 1953, 23; Del Grande 1960, 424; Pintacuda 1978, 43; Barker 1984, 251;

252. is unwary. As is generally known, conventional metaphor applied to sound pitch in ancient Greek (literally `sharp' -- `heavy'), Figurative meaning of these definitions in music was not left unnoticed by Aristotle, De anima 420a29-b4: тайта and not `high' -- `low'. To adduce one manifest proof, the string of the lyre that produced the lowest sound was called (`the highest'), according to its location while playing the instrument. So, the meaning `high-pitched' is not natural for

Its supporters refer to Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 19. 37, 920b18-21: See also Sch. Aesch. Sept. 954f Smith: o^uv' т6v opGiov; Hesych. o 1177: opGSoiov' opGiov. ра^ои б^й. цбуа.

Why is it, given that high pitch in sound goes with smallness and low pitch with large quantity (since what is low-pitched is slow because of the quantity, while what is high-pitched is swift because of the smallness), that it is harder work to sing high pitches than low ones, and few people can sing the upper notes, and the Orthioi and Oxeis nomoi are difficult to sing because they are tightly stretched? Transl. Barker 1989, 94.

However, the fact that the author found it necessary to use both words, opGioi каі o^etc, implies their semantic difference. Marenghi 1957, 110: “dal presente problema si puo desumere similarity tra i due, non assoluta uguaglianza”. Cf. the combination of these two adjectives in Apoll. Rhod. 4. 70-71: o^eip бряєгга бит ^бфас opGua cpwvfj ... qnue. Perhaps it consists in opGioc combining the notions of high pitch, loudness and tension. Besides, it has been noticed that та av« in this passage is applied to upper notes. Exclusively on the base of this passage, Graf 1888, 514 claimed: “die Griechen hatten <...> dieselbe raumliche Vorstellung von der Tonreihe wie wir”, and Gevaert 1899, 100 with n. 2 even proposed an explanation of this common notion: while singing, high sounds allegedly seem to resound in the head, and low sounds in the thorax. Yet H. Bonitz proposed a convincing explanation: by enumerating in succession та av« means items named at the beginning of the sequence, Bonitz 1870, s.v. avw: “Translatum ad seriem quamlibet та avw id significant, quod ordine prius est, veluti in serie sonorum та avw idem quod та б5Јa”. and the degrees of a scale were conventionally enumerated downwards. See e.g. Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 19. 33. In vocal notation alpha signifies the upper and omega the lower sound; the degree of the scale named тp^тr| is the third from above: Gevaert 1899, 174. Thus the spatial metaphor of vertical used for pitch is not reliably attested in Greek and cannot be mechanically applied to defining opGioc.

In the examples considered above the shouting of a girl and the crying of a baby are obviously high-pitched sounds. This meaning (though alongside with `loud' and `piercing') also suits the passage Aesch. Ag. 1153, where ecstatic outcries of Cassandra foreseeing her own death are metaphorically called opGioi vogoi Graf 1888, 513; Smyth 1904, lxiii; Pintacuda 1978, 113. -- not only because a woman's part is concerned, but also because high pitch was typical of lamentation. See Plat. Resp. 398e; Sch. Eur. Or. 176, p. 116. 16-17 Schwartz; Ps.-Plut. De mus. 1136C; cf. oi кХа^тєс фGЈYYovтаl in Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 11. 13, p. 900a20; 15, 900b7; 50, 904b23. In three cases adduced above opGioc is a characteristics of weeping: Pind. Nem. 10. 76; fr. 128e a2; Soph. Ant. 1206. Yet it should be noted that mournful character cannot be considered typical of opGioc, as examples clearly show (festive context: Sappho fr. 44. 32 Voigt; Pind. Ol. 9. 109; cf. the related verb: Aesch. Ag. 28-29 oXoXuYgbv ... ETopGiaZeiv, of Clytemnestra, and 1120 ETopGiaZeiv, of Erinys). Curiously, Aelian when speaking of birdcalls

On the other hand, a herald or Apollo was hardly likely to be shrieking in tragedy. Sappho (fr. 44. 31-34 Voigt) also uses op0ioc when recalling a shout of men (apparently the ritual exclamation `ie paean'(NA 6. 19) opposes op0ia to mournful and `womanly' (i.e. high?) sounds, but unites them with piercing ones: 90ЈyyЈTai 5e anTwv та ptv yospa Kai 0r|Aucpwva, та бє op0ia Kai 5idTopa. Rutherford 2001, 56 translates: “All the men sang the lovely high-pitched paean”. Yet the lines 32-33 suit better a paean-cry than a paean-song: it is the cry that could sound without prejudice together with the women's shout, while the song following it is first mentioned in line 34. The epithet snf paTov does not contradict to this understanding: it can characterize the cry as harmonious and as prophesying fortune. upvr|v is interpreted as impf. 3 pl. (Hamm 1958, 163) or as inf. epexegeticus governed by layov (Snell 1931, 73 n. 1; 368).) at the wedding of Hector and Andromache:

The elder women cried out joyfully, and all the men let forth a lovely op0iov strain calling on Paean, the Archer skilled in the lyre, and they sang in praise of the god-like Hector and Andromache. Trans. Campbell 1990, 91. Il. 12. 125: o^Јa KSKAfyovTsc; 17. 88-89: o^Јa KSKAfywv; o^u pofaac;. Aesch. Sept. 953-954: EnnAdAa^av Apai tov o^uv, cf. Hutchinson 1985, 202: “the article indicates that dAaAf was in general o^uc”.

Given that the exultant shout of men rings alongside that of women, op0iov presumably implies loud volume, since it could be only relatively high-pitched (as well as a citharodic nome performed by a male singer). Actually, some parallels show that even a cry of men -- namely of warriors -- could be thought of as high, for the adjective o^uc characterizes it. Yet perhaps only one kind of cry -- -- is implied.³⁷ is applied to an echo of such an of the Greek sailors in Aesch. Pers. 389-391 ).

Therefore, I am inclined to believe that the sounds which could be called op0ioi were frequently but not necessarily high-pitched.

While explaining the orthian nome, several times scholia to Aristophanes use words with the stem ten-/ton-/tan- which in their turn need interpretation: Cf. Sch. Aesch. Cho. 271: E^op0idZwv dvaTSTapЈva powv.

A. C. Cassio addressed these lemmata analyzing the meaning of and . Cassio 1971. In music evteiveaGai () was a technical term of citharists signifying `to strain (a string)' and therefore `tune up' (Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 19. 42, 921b26; Aris- tox. Elem. harm. p. 53. 9 Da Rios = 43, 30 Meibom; Lucian. Dial. deorum 11. 4). Despite the obvious fact that the tighter the string, the higher the sound it produces, evxeiveaGai taken alone does not imply an upper register, as is shown by Cassio (pace LSJ s.v.: `pitching high'). Besides it develops the figurative meaning `strain' (extended in particular from the physical to the mental state: ; Plat. Resp. 7. 536; ; Hdt. 1. 18; 4. 14; 7. 53; 8. 128). The adjective did not inherit the technical meaning `tuned up', but means `vigorous, intensive, strained, violent' (see Hdt. 4. 11; Soph. fr. 842 Radt; Eur. Or. 698; Hipp. 118; fr. 291. 1 Kannicht = N²).

and euTovoc; are easily mistaken in manuscripts LSJ s. v. euTovoc; Monk 1857, 12, ad Eur. Hipp. 117; Pearson 1917, 124; Cassio 1971, 55-56. (changing to euTovoc is more probable than vice versa, since in the Hellenistic period euTovoc was a common word, while became more and more rare Cassio 1971, 56 n. 2.). According to the analysis of Cassio, euTovoc means `strong, powerful', Latin `robustus', and in musical contexts, `loud' (Arist. Quint. 1. 21, p. 43. 13; cf. 42. 26-27 W.-I.). There is one instance (Aristot. De gen. anim. 786b7 sqq.) of euTovoc in etymological meaning `well- pitched', remarkably applied to the middle register -- neither too high nor too low (on animals' voices).

In the scholium to Ach. 16, as well as in both lemmata of the Suida quoting this scholium, Cassio proposed reading forms of `strained', and referred to the passage of Dio (Or. 1. 1) describing the orthian nome as oh . This solution is possible (Dio as a representative of ancient book culture is likely to express the same opinion as the scholiasts). Yet further considerations of Cassio are inconclusive: he negates the connotation of loudness for the words with the stem ten-, and takes being `strained' to imply high register (and ) and swift tempo ().

To begin with, it is unconvincing that a nome pitched high, which is difficult to sing (), cannot be described as sonorous: high sounds can be perfectly loud and penetrating, which is proved by a series of cases using , as well as a direct indication of Aristotle (De gen. anim. 787a2-5):

Next, I can indicate no cases of unambiguously indicating high register. In several cases tension combines with high pitch (see above n. 24). In musical treatises another compound, , is used as a technical term for increasing pitch (e.g. Cleonid. Isag. harm. 2, p. 181. 1-6 Jan). Cassio, to prove his understanding, cites the passage adduced above, Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 19. 37: However, here, in order to avoid the tautology (“high nomes are difficult to sing because they are high”) should be taken to mean `strained'. On the contrary, it can be demonstrated that these words are related to loudness, which is a natural result of tension: it is not an accident that in comments to Homer See above n. 13. ; is a synonym of ;, i.e. means `loudly'. Cf. the same meaning: Philo, De ebr. 102 ^ ooy ^Sovrjc; pSv ататетарегаі аі sKporiasu;; Schol. Hom. Il. 10. 141-142 агатєта|тЈуг| Tfj ipwvfj; Sch. Pind. Nem. 10. 61, p. 174. 1-2 Dr. <агатєта|гЈушс; Tfj ipwvfj; Sch. Soph. El. 1437 |r^ агатєтареушс; ф9Јууєо9аі аАА' ЄАафршс; sv шті АаАєіи

As regards evtovoc;, there are no convincing examples showing that it can mean `in a swift tempo'. Cassio refers to Soph. fr. 966 Radt and Aristoph. Ach. 674, but in both cases, firstly, the reading is not certain, and secondly, the context allows not only the meaning `swift' but also `loud' and `intense'. We seem to have no grounds at all to think that evtovoc was ever used as a musical term. Cassio is aware (1971, 56) that evtovoc; in Aristides Quintilianus occurs only once, in a medical simile (2. 16, p. 85. 29 W.-I.).

That the Greeks felt a tie between high pitch and swift tempo is by no means obvious. Numerous evidence on correlation of pitch and speed (including Probl. 19. 37) has nothing to do with the duration of sound itself and consequently with the tempo. It concerns the most popular ancient acoustic theory, which suggested that a high sound was a result of swift movement of air, and a low sound, a result of slow movement. Archytas fr. 1 Diels-Kranz (Porphyr. In Ptol. Harm. p. 57 During = p. 196-198 Barker); Plat. Tim. 67b5-6; 80a3; Aristot. De anima 2. 8, 420a30-33; De gen anim. 5. 2, 786b25-787a28; Top. 107a15; Ps.- Aristot. De audib. 803a5-6; Probl. 11. 3, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 34, 47, 53, 56, 61, 62; Theo Smyrn. Expositio rerum math. p. 50. 11-12 Hiller.

Probl. 19. 21, 919a29-35 seems to stand apart at first glance: it is argued that mistakes are more evident in singing low, because the listeners have more time to notice them.

Why is it that when people are singing, those who sing lower pitches, if they sing wrongly, do so more detectably than those who sing high? In rhythm, similarly, those who make mistakes in a slower rhythm do so more obviously. Is it because the time taken by something low-pitched is longer, and it is therefore more perceptible, since in the longer time it generates more sensation, while what is swift and high-pitched escapes detection because of its swiftness? Transl. Barker 1989, 92.

However, since it is undeniable that high and low sounds can last equally long, Gevaert 1899, 210, who thought the Problems to be the authentic work of Aristotle and refused to ascribe such blatant ignorance to the Stagirite, even suspected that the problem was a false one: the master aimed to provoke his students to take a critical approach to a generally accepted, but erroneous statement. Louis 1993, 98 supposed Byzantian interpolations in section 19 of the Problems. this passage most likely does not concern the tempo, but the nature of sound. Barker 1989, 92 n. 48. The author apparently shares the theory that every sound is discreet, that is, consists of a series of quick impacts separated by short spaces of silence, which blend with each other in our perception. Ps.-Aristot. De audib. 803b34 -804a8; Probl. 19. 39; Porph. In Ptol. Harm. p. 31. 6-21 During. A high sound is produced by more impacts in a certain period of time than a low one. E. g. in a consonant of fourth the higher string makes four impacts to the lower's three. This theory need not imply that the pitch depends on the frequency of oscillation, and it does not contradict the former idea of the nature of pitch. It simply assumes that more numerous impacts are caused by quicker movement of a string: De audib. 804a2-4, see. Barker 1989, 95 n. 64; 107-108 n. 40. The author implies that the organ of hearing thus has less time for perceiving every impact formatting a higher sound than for perceiving impacts creating the lower one, so one's perception of the high register is less clear.

Thus, in the scholia to Aristophanes considered here I can see no indications of either high pitch or swift tempo for the orthian nome. Rather, it is characterized as intense and perhaps loud.

What `tension' in music means is in its turn subject to interpretation. First, the scholiasts could imply physical effort required for producing sound. An eloquent description of a philosophical dispute in Lucian (Bis acc. 11) shows what strain to op0iov demanded: Cf. Plut. Phoc. 2: too harsh a course, opposed to everything the people desire, in administrating a city is called o op0ioc ayuv tovoc.

They raise their voices to a high falsetto, so that, with their excessive straining and their endeavour to talk at the same time, their faces get red, their necks get swollen, and their veins stand out like those of aulos-players when they try to blow into a close pipe. Translation: Harmon 1969, 103-105, with minor changes.

An evident consequence of such tension was the loudness. On the other hand, peripatetic evidence claims that singing high required more effort At the same time it was noted (e.g. Marenghi 1957, 103; Louis 1993, 98 -- as a proof of a late interpolation) that Probl. 19. 26, 919b24 = 46, 922a39-b1 contains a contrary claim: paov о^й аааі ^ рари. -- presumably for a male singer (Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 19. 7, 918b18:Second, the ethos of a musical piece could be implied, which in turn transmitted tension to the audience. In this case the question arises of what means might be used to give the impression of tension in music, but here we enter the sphere of guesswork. Maybe such an effect might be produced by sonority, as well as high pitch, for there is peripatetic evidence that it was perceived to be unstable: it was felt that a high register was not suitable for the ending of a musical piece; rather, a downwards procession was preferred (Ps.-Aristot. Probl. 19. 49: ). Tempo ) might also be an important factor for creating an ethos: Cassio 1971, 57. Aristides Quintilianus claims that a swift tempo creates an energetic, vigorous ethos stimulating dynamic activity -- exactly the mood ascribed to the orthian nome by our sources.⁵⁹ The gradual increasing of several parameters such as volume and tempo might also help.⁶⁰

I conclude that as a characteristic of sound means `attracting attention, `penetrative, `exciting, It seems plausible that an orthian nome might be notable for its piercing sounding and tension, which could be achieved due to loudness, high pitch, and perhaps speed.

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