Традиции Георга Фридриха Генделя в полифонических жанрах Роберта Шумана

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Традиции Георга Фридриха Генделя в полифонических жанрах Роберта Шумана

Аннотация

полифонический творчество гендель шуман

Предметом данной статьи является сравнительный подход к полифоническому творчеству двух композиторов, относящихся к разным эпохам, композитора эпохи барокко Георга Фридриха Генделя и композитора-романтика Роберта Шумана. Полифония в эпоху барокко достигает новых, более высоких вершин техники и художественной ценности, особенно в произведениях Баха (Иоганна Себастьяна Баха) и Генделя. В отличие от барокко, полифонический образ мышления не преобладает в эпоху романтизма.

Полифоническая сочинительская техника Генделя отличается от техники Баха. В своем полифоническом способе сочинения Бах обращается к средневековым и ренессансным истокам, тогда как Гендель опирается на новые истоки, приемы венских классиков [26]. Фактура Шумана, по мнению Протопопова, стоит на грани полифонии и гомофонии. Он стремится слить полифоническую фактуру с гомофонно-гармонической. Его полифония чрезвычайно значительна, поскольку он применял различные полифонические приемы с ясной и логично выстроенной полифонической формой. Элементы полифонии можно найти практически во всех жанрах его творчества. Таких традиционных полифонических форм очень мало, но там, где этого требует художественная форма, они звучат оригинально, по образцу, прежде всего, композиторов барокко [1]. Шуман умело сочетал барочные композиционные принципы с элементами своего романтического музыкального языка [19].

В начале статьи, во введении, кратко представлена и сопоставлена техника полифонического сочинения в эпоху барокко и романтизма. За этим более подробно рассматривается техника полифонической композиции в творчестве Георга Фридриха Генделя, после чего следует более подробная интерпретация техники полифонической композиции в творчестве Роберта Шумана. Следующий раздел статьи включает исследование потенциального влияния полифонической традиции Генделя на технику полифонического сочинения Шумана, особенно в инструментальной форме фуги. Работа дополнена отдельными выдержками из критики произведений упомянутых композиторов. Цель статьи - определить, есть ли сходство в полифонической технике названных композиторов. Также целью статьи является определение того, оказал ли композитор эпохи барокко Гендель своим полифоническим творчеством влияние на творчество Шумана, композитора эпохи романтизма.

Ключевые слова: полифония, подражание, барокко, романтизм, Георг Фридрих Гендель, Роберт Шуман.

George Friedrich Handel's traditions in polyphonic genres of Robert Schuman

Abstract

The subject of this paper is a comparative approach to the polyphonic creativity opus of two composers belonging to different eras, on the one hand, baroque composer Georg Friedrich Handel and on the other hand, romantic composer Robert Schumann. Polyphony in the Baroque reaches new, higher peaks of technique as well as artistic value, especially in the works of Bach (Johann Sebastian Bach) and Handel. Contrary to the Baroque, the polyphonic way of thinking is not primary for the era of Romanticism.

Handel's polyphonic composing technique differs from Bach's in his polyphonic way of creating. Bach connects to Medieval and Renaissance sources, while Handel leans towards new sources, the techniques of the Viennese classicists [26]. Schumann's texture, according to Protopopov, stands on the edge of polyphony and homophony. He tends to merge the polyphonic texture with the homophonic-harmonic texture. His polyphony is extremely significant because he applied various polyphonic techniques with a clear and logically designed polyphonic form. Elements of polyphony can be found in almost all genres of his creative work. There are very few of those traditional polyphonic forms, but where the artistic form requires it, they sound originally based on the model, above all of Baroque composers [1]. Schumann skillfully combined baroque compositional principles with elements of his romantic musical language [19].

At the beginning of the paper there is an introduction in which the polyphonic composition technique in the Baroque and Romantic periods is briefly presented and compared. Then a part is included which explains in more detail the polyphonic composition technique in the work of Georg Friedrich Handel, followed by a more detailed interpretation of the polyphonic composition technique in the work of Robert Schumann. The next segment of the paper includes research into the potential influence of Handel's polyphonic tradition on Schumann's polyphonic composing technique, especially in the instrumental form of the fugue. The work is completed with certain excerpts from reviews of the works of the above-mentioned composers.

Keywords: polyphony, imitation, baroque, romanticism, Georg Friedrich Handel, Robert Schumann.

Introduction

Polyphony, as a way of creative expression, is multifaceted in musical literature. In the period from the Renaissance era, through Baroque, Classicism, Romanticism, until today, polyphony had different treatment and different role [21; 2].

The Baroque era represents the period in which the polyphonic composition technique reaches new heights, especially in the works of Bach (Johann Sebastian Bach) and Handel. One of the more significant innovations, which baroque composers attach special importance to, are the harmonic verticals on which the melodies rely [14]. On the other hand, the polyphonic way of musical thinking is not primary for the era of romanticism, it emphasizes expressive melody and complex harmony in the foreground. Romantic melodic lines abandon the classic periodic structure, while the harmonic language develops in the direction of more complex chromatic and enharmonic phenomena. For many Romantic composers, the infiltration of polyphonic elements into homophony is characteristic, which represents the so-called harmonic polyphony [15; 19; 21; 23]. As Protopopov claims, the solution to the problems of polyphony was given by Romantic composers. The solution lay in the specific character of musical forms, which led to strengthening the individualization of thematism. A new, thematically opposite, heterogeneous genre polyphony was born, which gave rise to contrasting thematic polyphony. The new polyphonic principle of romanticism differed from the classical one [1]. Pericic points out that the polyphonic elements represented in the works of romantic composers (Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, Max Reger, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt), Wilhelm Richard Wagner and others) are based on the baroque polyphonic tradition [19].

Given that polyphony is closely related to the term imitation, the most pronounced application of which is in canon and fugue, M.S. Skrebkova-Filatova claims that the imitative technique of composing, with its independence from harmonic and melodic content, proved to be thoroughly developed (like no other type of musical texture) through various stylistic epochs, until today [4]. Thomson notes that it is precisely imitation that enables the composer to unite different parts of the musical fabric into one meaningful whole [24].

Polyphony in Handel's opus

Handel (1685-1759), a composer whose style exudes clarity, heroic character, pomposity, fullness of sound, rhythm, dominance of consonant sounds, he was often prone to improvisation, striving for the audience to understand and accept his compositions [6]. Handel's creative oeuvre consists mainly of operas and oratorios, while the minority is made up of instrumental compositions that stand out from the rest, realized by a synthesis between the music of the Mediterranean Baroque (the system of major and minor scales) and that which is characteristic of the Germanic region (music that is chromatically enriched in harmonic expression) [21].

Handel's polyphonic composing technique leans towards new sources, the techniques of the Viennese classicists [26]. In Handel's creative opus, polyphonic elements are predominantly represented in the form of fugue work (or a complete form of fugue) in the movements of his oratorios, concerto grosso type concerts, suites, cantatas and others. The choirs in his oratorios are predominantly polyphonic textures, from free contrapuntal syllables, through the application of strict or free imitation techniques, alternating polyphonic and homophonic elements, all the way to impressive fugues. Handel gave an important place to the choral elements in the oratorio, entrusting them with the key moments of the event. One of the best examples is the oratorio Israel in Egypt, which consists of only 4 recitatives, 4 arias, 3 duets and as many as 28 choruses. His type of oratorio largely remains a model for the following epochs [19].

More than any other composer, Handel came closer to the sung Italian melody, the English musical past and the folklore of other nations with his creativity, becoming a role model for many composers of later eras, even today. He is the first composer who wrote music for outdoor performance, dedicated to large masses of people. On the centenary of Handel's death, Messiah was performed by 2,765 singers and 460 instrumentalists, while the audience consisted of about 10,000 spectators [13].

Typical baroque ornamental variations can be found in the final movements of Handel's suites, such as the Aria with Variations from the Piano Suite in E major. This track was also performed independently in the form of variations called.

Musical Blacksmith. In addition, the pascaglia that ends Handel's Harpsichord Suite in G-moll is more figurative than polyphonic, and looks more like ornamental variations than a real pascaglia. In the French type of overture, which is represented in his opus, the second movement (Allegro) is predominantly polyphonic textures with pronounced fugue elaboration. The mentioned type of French overture is found in Handel's oratorio Messiah as well as in the orchestral suite Music on Water [19].

Handel was not so dedicated to composing fugues, and they usually form only part of a larger musical ensemble. On the example of the Concerto Grosso, which is predominantly based on the church sonata form, the fugue usually takes the place of the second movement. This kind of fugue in grosso concertos is mostly of the usual structure, without particular specificity, because the group of soloists (concertino) does not stand out from the orchestra with a particularly prominent role [20]. According to Simakova's assertions, in Handel's fugues, freer relationships between voices are formed, with the presence of elements that will later create a concert, fantasy fugue [3], while Pericic defines the type of Handel's fugues as fugues with simple, plastic, strong lines and airy textures [19].

Sir Samuel Hellier and Granville Sharp had a special interest in collecting and preserving Handel's compositions as evidenced by the catalog accompanying the exhibition of the National Portrait Gallery in London on the occasion of commemorating the 300th anniversary of the composer's birth, in which gratitude was expressed to them because the two left solid evidence of the means by which the composer indulged his enthusiasm [11].

Polyphony in the work of Robert Schumann

Schumann (1810-1856) applies in his work a certain polyphonic principle of composing, which has great historical significance. He had his first encounter with baroque polyphony in the classes of professor Kunc, and his interest in theoretical research, primarily Bach's music, began during his studies with Heinrich Dorn [7; 18; 1; 22]. Although less well-known than Mendelssohn's, Schumann's engagement with Bach's music is perhaps the most significant among his contemporaries in reviving it [19]. One of the most important sources documenting Schumann's exploration of the fugue form (especially Bach's collections The Well-Tempered Clavier and The Art of the Fugue) is the manuscript History of the Fugue from 1837. In this manuscript, Schumann presents his criticisms of the themes of the fugues, their responses, melodic quality and potential for further transformation in the course of the composition [6; 18]. Bach's collection The Well-Tempered Clavier represented the peak of art for Schumann, with him once declaring, “Play diligently the fugues of the great masters, especially of J.S. Bach. His Well-Tempered Piano should be your daily bread” [Schumann; cited by 1, p. 62]. Thanks to his refined taste in his music criticism, Schumann built a special style and thus became a role model critic, and his criticism became an art in which the musical current of the time was depicted [12].

After a general overview of Robert Schumann's piano cycles, Djokic reveals Schumann's affinity for the monothematic and variational principle of composing, that is, that one theme becomes the basis of the entire composition with several more or less free variations [12]. Schumann's polyphony is characterized by imitative construction, predominantly expressed through contrasting polyphony or layered polyphony. According to Protopopov, polyphony of layers is made up of three independent components, where one voice presents the theme, the second counterpoint, and the third has a free chordal movement [1]. Schumann achieves the fluidity of the melodic flow with polyphony through the imitation system, which may reflect a new phase of Bach's “endless melody”.

A particularly important factor in Schumann's style is the introduction of imitation in the exposition of the sonata form. His predominantly lyrical themes correspond to imitative forms because in that way they emphasize the melodic essence (Sonata in F minor). A very significant example of the use of the imitation technique of composing is the Piano Trio no. 1 op. 63 in which the main theme underwent numerous contrapuntal transformations during the composition, but retained its basic character.

Schumann includes polyphony not only in the sonata, but also in other musical forms, for example the Symphonic Etudes in which the connection with Bach's Goldberg Variations is visible [1]. Kanacki claims that a significant place in Robert Schumann's work is occupied by the reaffirmation of baroque compositional techniques, most often canons, fugues, variations and others. In Schumann's Impromptu, Variations on a Paganini Theme, Abeg Variations, Carnival and Symphonic Etudes, the influence of traditional methods of composing the baroque, ornamental and character variations on the basis of romantic style is visible [8; 16; 1].

In his opus, Schumann did not bypass the most significant polyphonic form - the fugue. His fugue composing technique is traditional compared to other romantic composers, the characteristics of the romantic style are predominantly visible in the melodic-harmonic structure [8]. In Schumann's Piano Quintet in E-flat major, the final movement contains a fugue form that is characteristic in that it is built on the counterpoint of the themes from the first movement, which enabled the unification of the cycle. Schumann used the fugue only once in his symphonies, and that was in the fourth movement of the Symphony in Eflat major. Although the opening itself has a homophonic texture, the quarter-movement theme seemed suitable for a fugue (quarter-movement themes can be found in Bach's fugues, for example: Doric fugue for organ). This position represents a unique phenomenon in the history of polyphony where polyphony occurs in synthesis with homophonic-harmonic texture, and the polyphonic tool for the development of the musical flow is a short theme that later became the basis of monothematism (Berlioz, Liszt, Aleksandr Nikolaevich Scriabin) [8; 1; 25].

Polyphony in Schumann's vocal pieces is inferior to instrumental polyphony. The fugue form in the vocal works is present only in certain movements of the Mass op. 147 and Requiem op. 148, in addition to the ones mentioned, there is another important composition, Ritornelli op. 65 written in canonical form for male choir. The independent form of fugue in Robert Schumann's work is extremely small, only two collections of fugues from 1845 (Six fugues named after BACH op. 60 and Four fugues op. 72) and one collection Seven fugues op. 126 from 1853 [17; 1]. In his Polyphonic Analysis, Skrebkov claims that the connection between Schumann and Bach is visible in the polyphonic works, especially the fugues. According to Skrebkov, certain fugues from Four Fugues Op. 72 by Robert Schumann are so similar to Bach's fugues that one can even speak of imitation [5]. Lee does not dispute the enormous similarity between Schumann's and Bach's fugues, but points to the possibility that Schumann made a transcription of certain Bach fugues in order to avoid the conflict between melody and harmony, which, according to Schumann's potential assumptions, arose during the transcription of the compositions, and not during the composing process itself [18]. Wendt characterized the finale of Schumann's Impromptu on a theme of Clara Vick, Op. 5 as his best application of the fugue form to a typically romantic musical form [27].

The influence of Handel on the creativity opus of Robert Schumann

Handel's influence on Robert Schumann's opus has rarely been the subject of theoretical research, and even Schumann's notes themselves mention Handel very little. Wend researched the reception of Bach and Handel's music in Robert Schumann's work and came to the conclusion that both composers of the Baroque era had no significant influence on the young Schumann, especially Handel. At the very beginning of his career, Schumann left no written trace in which he mentioned Handel, which is not surprising, because Handel simply did not appear in the musical environment of the young Schumann, in the musical life of Zwickau. Schumann's musical socialization was characterized by chamber music evenings, school concerts, occasional opera performances and probably open-air concerts by Zwickau town musicians. Schumann had his first encounter with Bach's compositions in 1827 when he attended a concert where the Goldberg Variations were performed, while his first contact with Handel's work was in 1830 when he attended a performance of the oratorio Samson.

After moving to Dresden and studying Baroque polyphony more intensively, Schumann recorded more of Handel's individual compositions, mostly arias and choruses. No work attracted his special attention, however, since most of his visits to concerts were not recorded, it is assumed that he heard a large number of Handel's compositions during that period. Over time, Schumann became interested in Handel, especially in his oratorios, as evidenced by the found list of all Handel's oratorios. From September 1847, Schumann studied more intensively the biography of Handel by the author Charles Burney and began to create his own image of Handel, which he published in his articles: “Handel knew how to treat the choir most harshly (...) and in order to call a certain fugue of an author a masterpiece, it is necessary to get acquainted with the fugues of Handel and Bach” [27, p. 171].

In Dresden, Schumann practiced only one work by Handel, the Jephthah oratorio, exclusively choral numbers, but without public performance, and it is believed that Schumann used this work primarily for training choirs. During his stay in Dusseldorf, Schumann continued the tradition of reviving Handel's music started by Mendelssohn and Julius Rietz, leaving behind performance materials. According to Wend's research, Schumann documented his work with the choral ensemble and performances in the Choir Notebook. In 1850, Schumann recorded the rehearsals and performance of Handel's oratorio Israel in Egypt (somewhat later Schumann apostrophized this oratorio as an ideal choral work). With his ensemble on November 18, 1852, Schumann performed the Alleluia from Handel's oratorio Messiah, but he also noted the planning of a concert in which he would perform the complete oratorio. He realized his plan on May 15, 1853, when he conducted the complete Messiah with a characteristic imposing ensemble [27]. Under the influence of Handel's oratorios, Schumann also composed one of his own oratorios - Paradise and Peri, however, oratorio as a genre in the postBaroque epochs no longer occupies such a prominent place [19].

By comparing the work of Handel and Schumann, it can be said that for Handel polyphonic thinking is primary, while in Schumann's work there are primarily homophonic compositions. However, observing the way Schumann treats polyphonic elements in his compositions, a huge similarity with the polyphonic compositional techniques of the Baroque is noticeable. In the creative opus of the mentioned composers, special similarities are noticeable in the composition of the form of instrumental fugue. The fundamental similarity is reflected in the formal structure, which remains in the domain characteristic of the baroque polyphonic form of the fugue, made up of characteristic parts - the exposition, the development part and the final part, within which there are internal intermovements, while external intermovements form the link between the mentioned main parts of the fugue. Both composers attach importance to imitating the theme of the fugue in certain contrapuntal techniques such as augmentation, diminution, retrograde imitation, which adequately evoke the baroque core. The essential difference between Handel's and Schumann's fugues is reflected in the fact that Schumann introduces novelties in his fugues characteristic of the Romantic era in the melodic and harmonic flow. As for specifically Handel's fugues and their influence on Schumann are concerned, there is very little evidence to suggest this. Wendt cites a couple of Schumann's comments on Handel's fugues in which he says they deserve special respect and that there should be more of them. Nowhere is it specifically recorded which fugues Schumann is referring to, as well as which Handel fugues he encountered [27]. However, Bach had a far greater influence on Schumann's work. This is evidenced by his statement signed by Florestian: “In the historical flow of time, creators build on each other.” So Beethoven did not have to study what Mozart is, Mozart what Handel is, Handel what Palestrina is - because they had already absorbed their predecessors. There is only one who should be studied again and again and learn from him - J.S. Bach [27: p. 349].

Excerpts from reviews of Handel's and Schumann's works

About Handel's creativity opus, Ludwig van Beethoven once said: “Handel is the master of masters. Look up to him, all composers of the world, and you will learn to achieve the greatest effects with few resources” (Beethoven; quoted in 13: 30). Krajacic cites the influences and opinions of some romantic composers on Handel's work: “Berlioz (Hector Berlioz) found in him a model for great popularity among the people (...) Robert Schumann wrote in 1855 that he considered Israel in Egypt to be an ideal choral composition...” [17: p. 225]. In a London newspaper published during Handel's stay there, a review was presented that spoke of the delight with which the audience experienced Handel's mastery on the harpsichord: “O winds, softly, softly flutter golden wings among the branches! Let there be silence everywhere (...) Listen, listen how the great Handel plays” [28].

Ivkovic testifies that the melodies of Schumann's compositions produce a strong sense of direction and continuity, the tones in them lead into each other, and it is precisely from these relations of mutual dependence and conditionality of tones that the sense of roundness, unity of melody and harmony arises [14]. He describes the creativity opus of Robert Schuman Plavs as follows: “Such a constitution, that great sensibility and wealth of fantasy, were reflected in his works, built with a masterful technique, which reveals his deep knowledge of counterpoint and harmony, the basic means of expression with which, along with inventive melodic and pregnant rhythm, sovereignly served” [20: p. 129].

Conclusion

A comparative approach to looking at the polyphonic way of thinking in the works of authors belonging to different eras is an interesting challenge. This paper contains a comparative analysis of the polyphonic creativity of Georg Friedrich Handel and Robert Schumann. Their creative opuses are made up of a certain number of polyphonic compositions, of which there are certainly more in Handel's opus. Although the polyphonic principle is not primary for the era of Romanticism, Schumann also applies this composing technique. The most consistent examples of traditional Baroque polyphony are found in Schumann's fugues. Among other things, in the composition of the fugue as a superior polyphonic form, it is possible to see a similarity between Handel and Schumann, because Schumann remains faithful to the baroque tradition when composing the fugue. Based on everything mentioned, it can be concluded that Handel did not have a big and significant influence on Schumann's polyphonic creativity, except when composing the oratorios. The connection between these two composers is reflected in the reliance on the baroque polyphonic tradition, with the difference that in Schumann's opus it is enriched with elements characteristic of the Romantic era, primarily in the form of freer melodic and harmonic movement.

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26. Hissarlian-Lagoutte P. Stil i tehnika velikih majstora klavira / sa francuskog preveo Ivan Supicic. - Beograd: Nolit, 1957. - 244 с.

27. Wendt M. Bach und Handel in der Rezeption Robert Schumanns [Электронный ресурс]. - URL: https://www. schumann-ga.de/wordpress/?page_id=319.

28. George Frideric Handel [Электронный ресурс]. - URL: https://klasicar.wordpress.com/2012/08/05/hendl.

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