How to teach other grammatical categories

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Introduction

language mechanisms school

Every year in many parts of the world a considerable number of persons find themselves called upon to teach English to those whose mother tongue is not English. Their pupils may be children or adults; and range from those who already have some knowledge of English either in its spoken or written form those who know not a single word of the language.

The mother tongue of those who are about to engage in such teaching is usually English, but to some of them English is a foreign language in which they may or may not be proficient. But in either case they find themselves taking on a job which is unfamiliar to them. They have rarely been specially trained to teach English as a living language and as a means of immediate communication.

If their pupils already have some knowledge of English, the teacher more often than not has recourse to reading book, and causes his pupils to read- with or without the process of translation. Or, if a command of the spoken language is the objective, they content themselves with carrying on «conversation» with their pupils in the latter case such teachers find themselves at a loss. The various techniques of teaching through conversation are usually unknown to them and, like the veterans who came into this field before them, they pick up the devices of oral teaching by dint of the process of trial and error.

Its for the benefit of such teaches working in such conditions that this book has been written. It confines itself to that branch of English teaching which is concerned with the speaking of the language, and to the method in which the use of the pupil's mother tongue plays little or no pat. In other terms, it is an exposition of the Oral Direct Method. For the techniques of teaching the reading and writing side of English, we must refer teachers to the many manuals that specialize in such branches. The present volume is not the only one that sets forth the chief words and forms to be taught first, and how to teach them.

The subject is here presented not from the point of view of traditional grammar and lexicology, but from the point of view of practical teaching. The various grammatical categories are replaced by «language situations». Instead of talking about nouns, adjectives, verbs, ets. We talk about the naming and describing of objects and actions.

It is a well-known fact that when two persons, ignorant of each other's language, find themselves in daily contact, with the necessity of communication by speech, either will soon become able to use the language of the other with sufficient proficiency for the purpose in view. This book shows the most economical and common-sense procedures to bring about this effect.

The work deals not only with the commonest words, but also with the commonest «mechanisms of the language» , appropriately classified. The table of contents shows which these are. If the procedures here outline are carried out systematically and regularly, it will be found that the pupils will give the right sort of answers with fair correctness, and will not use «broken English».

No hard and fast instructions have been given as to the order of succession of the lessons. Each chapter develops the teaching devices from the simpler to the less simple. As a rule the later part of each chapter is more advanced than the first few pages of any other chapter.

It is for the teacher himself, rather than compilers of this volume, to draw up the programmer of successive lessons. The teacher being in daily contact with his pupils, in full knowledge of their degree of aptitude and rate of progress, and otherwise the first-hand observer, must be the judge at any moments as to what to teach next. Too much instruction on any one subject will make for monotony any lack of interest; while too much skipping from one subject to another will make for scrappy knowledge and insufficient «digestion».

There are three stages of learning:

1. Receiving knowledge.

2. Fixing it in the memory by repetition.

3. Using the knowledge by real practice.

Thus, when the teacher says «This is a red book,» «This is my table.» The pupil is receiving knowledge. When the pupil on many occasions answer the questions; «What's this?» «What color is it?» «Whose table is this?» he is fixing the knowledge in his memory. But when in the ordinary course of duty he is told to «Bring me the red book on my table, « and brings it, he is using the knowledge.

Now the giving and fixing knowledge is the work of the teacher in the ordinary course of the lessons. The using of the knowledge as a rule takes place not in the course of the lessons but in the ordinary course of the day's week.

So the teacher's first and chief business is to give knowledge and fix it in the pupil's memory. He therefore

(a) Makes statements (i. e. gives knowledge).

(b) Asks questions (i.e. fixes knowledge by practice).

A learner obviously can not give what he has not previously received if you point to an object and say «What's that?» The learner who has not previously been told what the object is will be unable to answer.

This book shows what sort of knowledge, and which items of knowledge, are to be given and fixed. In each case typical statements are shown and are followed by typical questions and the answers to them.

For the sake of conscience, the questions are given in the form of Direct Questions.

These may be questions beginning with what, who, where, which, how many, or questions beginning with is this, are you, do you, have you, etc,

Sooner or later however you must come to use the equally natural indirect questioning. For instance instead of saying to someone, «what is that» we often say, «Tell me what that is?» or «I wont to know what that is.» Or instead of saying «This is the right way?» or «I wont to know whether this is the right way.»

Again we rarely use such form as «Say to him What is that» or «Say this to him, Where are you going?» We prefer the shorter and more natural forms; «Ask him what that is « or «Ask him where he is going.»

So quiet early in the course of lessons the teacher should sometimes replace direct by indirect questions. The following are someplace of direct questions and some of the indirect questions corresponding to them.

Another very good way to use indirect questions is for the teacher to tell one of the pupils to ask questions of other pupils. This makes a useful and lively form of drill-work. For instance.

Similar to this teaching device is the one in which the teacher tells one of his pupils to tell another of the pupils something:

While the devices explained above may be used at a very early stage, the teacher should of course use only words and forms that are familiar to his pupils.

He should obviously not say to X «Ask Y to give you a match» before the lesson on giving things has been learnt. If the teacher says to X «Ask Y how many trees he can see» before the lessons that introduce how many or can or see, Y will not understand what the teacher is saying to him, far less be able to carry out the command. In other terms, each use of indirect questioning, telling or commanding must correspond to the actual lesson that is being given.

Other forms of questions.

Throughout the book, as we have said, the questions are given in direct and simple form.

The teacher could confine himself to these, but he must remember that this pupils will certainly hear from Europeans with whom they will come in to contact questions cast in other and equally popular forms.

Thus instead of, for instance,

Is this yours?

They may hear:

This is yours, isn't it?

This is yours. Is that true?

This is yours. Is that right (correct)?

This is yours. Is that right or wrong?

He said this was yours; was he right or wrong?

The teacher than should often replace questions given in this book by the forms suggested above.

For the sake of conciseness, throughout this book the answer to questions are given as bare statement.

Vocabulary

The vocabulary has been selected with a view to teaching the commonest words. The teacher is recommended to obtain (from the publishers of this book) the series of New Method Practice Books. I, II, III, together with the teacher's manuals accompanying them. He will find that these embody in detailed form many of the teaching devises set forth in the present volume.

The teacher who feels the need for referring to some book on English grammar, for the use of foreign learners, and for becoming more familiar with the terminology of grammar, is recommended to obtain (from the same publisher) The New Method Grammar, together with the teacher's manual accompanying it.

The New Method Dictionary will also be of help in explaining the meanings of words in a simple way.

How to teach the names of objects

Among the first lessons to be given to beginners are those that teach the common objects. Many and repeated opportunities must be given for.

(a) seeing the objects and hearing their names,

(b) seeing the objects and saying their names,

(c) Pointing to the objects on hearing their names,

(d) Answering such questions as What's this? What's that? What are these? Etc.

That is to say, the pupils must so associate the objects with their names that when they hear the name they think of the object and when they see the object they think of it is name.

All lessons that teach the names of objects come under the heading of «Lessons based on the question what?»

The usual procedure is as follows.

1. The teacher first selects a number of objects, in batches of say from 10 to 20.

If he chooses too many at a time, the pupils are likely not to remember them all; too many words at a time results in «mental indigestion.»

If he chooses too few at a time, the lesson is likely to be monotonous.

The objects should be chosen wisely. They should be in the first intense

the commonest and most general objects-the things we talk about very often and not the things we talk about rarely.

Teach for instance, tree before shrub, head before eyebrow, stick, before twig etc.

The objects may be

(a) those that are usually to be found in the place where the lesson is given, e. g. door, window. Knife, match, book; or parts of the body and articles of clothing.

(b) Those collected specially for the purposes of the lesson, e. g. a stick, a stone, a nail, a piece of wire, a piece of string, etc.

(c) Those represented by pictures, such as those printed on picture cards or wall charts, or by rough drawings on the blackboard.

The teacher shows or points to each object in turn and names it. He says the name clearly ( but naturally) three or four times.

He should say, for instance pencil as we usually say the word, not pen - cil; or garden (rhyming with pardon) and not gar-den.

It is usually considered better and more practical to put a (an) or the before the name. Thus, not simple table or chair, but a table, a chair or the table, the chair.

But a, an, the (and other similar words ) should be pronounced naturally as in ordinary speech, and not as ay, Ann, or thee.

2.The teacher shows or points to the same object saying this time

This a book (pencil, button, etc.)

This is an envelope (umbrella, etc.)

That's the door (window, etc.)

It is usual to say This is a for small objects close to the teacher, and That's a for larger objects a short distance away from him.

While a (or an ) can be put the objects, it is usually to speak at the door, the window, the table, the floor, et., which belongs to the room. Much must be left to the judgment of the teacher, who will in each case use what seems to him the most natural form.

Note. - Some teachers prefer to use from the very start This is a book, This is an envelope, That's the table, etc., instead of merely book, a book, table, the table, etc.

Such words as this and that should always be accompanied by a suitable gesture, thus:

This(tapping or holding up the object) is a-.

That ( vigorously pointing to the object ) is the-.

So far the pupils have been listening and looking: they have been receiving words and sentences and not giving them.

Some teachers at this point would begin making the pupils say the words and sentences or answer the question What is this? But it is generally considered wiser

to give the pupils more chances of hearing and recognizing words before they are called upon to speak. Other teachers even go so far as to spend several lessons on listening practice before allowing the pupils to say anything. Their point is that the more the pupils have heard the words and the sentences repeated the more easily and correctly they will speak when the time comes. And indeed if pupils are forced to say words before they have properly «digested» them, they will generally say them with great difficulty and not at all in the English way.

3. The teacher would do well at this point to ask himself questions and to answer them himself. He will start by such groups as:

What's this? It's a book.

What's this? It's a pencil.

What's this? It's a button.

What's that? It's the door.

What's that? It's the table.

He will then proceed to the questions for yes or no answers. In all examples of questions and answers the words printed in italics are to be emphasized or stressed.

Is this a book? Yes, it is.

Is this a pencil? No, it isn't.

Is this a pencil? Yes, it is.

Pupils generally find it amusing when they hear the teacher (when pointing to, let us say, a table) ask himself : Is that a button? And before long will themselves call out: No, it isn't.

Then he can continue by asking himself «alternative questions» and answering them.

Is this a book or a pencil? It's a book.

Is this a pencil or a button? It's a button.

Is that this window or the door? It's the door.

Finally he should ask the and answers a «series» of three questions for each object always in the same order and in the following way:

1. Is this a book? Yes, it is.

2. Is this a pencil? No, it isn't.

3. What is it? It's a book.

1. Is that the door? Yes, it is.

2. Is that the window? No, it isn't.

3. What is it? It's the door. Etc.

Such «series» of questions and answering should be executed in regular drill-like manner so that the «pattern» of the sentences stands out in a distinct rhythm.

As we shall see later, this «series drill» is of great importance, and the teacher would do well to practice the system until he can execute it (or cause it to be executed) without the slightest hitch of hesitation. It is comparable to the commands and movements of military drill in which the succession of movements is carried out in perfect order and with machine-like accuracy.

Note that:

Question One is to obtain yes as the first word in the answer.

Question two is to obtain no as the first word in the answer.

Question three is to obtain the main answer.

Note which words in the questions and answers are stressed of put into prominence. The success of the drill depends largely on this.

Note also that the rise or fall of the voice must be natural:

Is this a book? (Voice rises on book.)

Yes, it is. (Voice drops on is.)

Is this a pencil? (Voice rises on pencil.)

No, it isn't. (Voice drops on isn't.)

What is it? (Voice drops on is.)

It's a book. (Voice drops on book.)

Such «series» and indeed all drill-like question and answer work should be used as indicted and not varied by the substitution of Indirect for Direct questions (see pp. 8-9) Indirect questions may be introduced later, when the pupils have practiced the Direct form until they are thoroughly familiar with it.

4.When the pupils have had sufficient opportunity to hear the words and sentences (and to grasp their meaning) they are called upon to say them.

In the first instance they may repeat them after the teacher

When the pupils are proficient in answering such questions in more or less drill-like form, the question may be asked in irregular order:

5.At a certain moment (this depending on the aptitude and proficiency of the pupils) in turn will be called upon to play the part of teacher, and will carry on the work of naming and questioning -the object and types of questions being of course those with which they are familiar.

List of suitable objects.

Some of these are generally present in the place when the lesson is given. Others should be collected and kept in a special receptacle.



How to teach the names of substances

The previous chapter has outline how to teach the names of objects, and indeed gives a working plan of the first and sequent lesson on the sort of objects suggested. Decide how much time should be devoted to the work as already outlined, or no how many occasions such lessons are to be given.

It is by no means necessary that such lessons of this sort, in which little is taught other than names of common objects, might prove tedious. At about the time of the third lesson therefore consider the advisability of introducing some simple type of lesson such as the first of those that teach the names of actions or those that answer the question where?

You will have noted that in chapter I the names taught were all «countable» (things that cannot be counted but only measured) such as water, wood, steel etc.- in short the names of substances.

You will also have noted that the objects taught were treated only in the singular (a book, the table) and not in the plural (books, the tables). It is better to teach plural nouns in connection with lessons based on the question I low many? At the moment when the pupils are learning the numbers, some lesson later.

We teach the names of substances in much the same way as we teach the named of objects. The pupils must be given many opportunities for

(a) seeing the substances and hearing their names.

(b) Seeing the substances and saying their names;

(c) Pointing to the substances on hearing their names;

(d) Answering such questions as What's this? What's that?

1. First select a number of substances. The number of suitable substances is rather limited. In fact at this early stage they are more or less confined to the following list.

PAPER (the substance, not a plantation trees.)

GLASS (the substance, not a tumbler or an eyeglass).

WATER (a glass or a bowl of water should be available).

INK (if any is present in the classroom).

IRON (as in some iron subject available - a door hinge or a bolt.)

STEEL (as the blade of a knife).

GOLD (possible a ring).

SILVER (such as in a silver coin).

LEAD (not of a lead pencil but a bit of piping).

BRASS (in articles of equipment).

COPPER (if samples or objects containing them are available).

ALUMINIUM (if samples or objects containing them are available).

CLOTH (of some article of clothing, not a «cloth» for cleaning).

WOOL (if available, not «cotton-wool»).

LEATHER (in shoes or belt).

STONE (the substance, distinguished from «a rock»).

SAND

EARTH (a small boxful of each).

COTTON

LINEN (if available, as in shirts, collars, etc.).

MONEY (as we not say «a money» but «some money» this is considered as a substance and not an object).

BONE (as in a bone button or a collar stud).

SKIN (of body).

And samples of thread, string ,were, cord or rope, grass, hay, straw, rice, coffee, tea, sugar, salt, flour, bread, butter, tobacco, soap, etc.

We separate the teaching of substances and that of common objects because these two classes of words behave differently in sentences (and grammar). We never put a or an before the names of substances. We either put nothing at all in the place of a or an:

This is ( ) water or we can put words like some, any or no in front of them:

Give me some water.

Is there any water?

There's no water.

2.Show, point to or handle various substance of which something is made (and not of the object itself) is to rub or scratch it, to feel or to pinch if, to smell it, to taste it or to shake the box containing it (according to the nature of the substance). Name the substance as you do so, this time without putting any word in front of the name. Say

This (That) is a piece of wood (a bit of glass, a sheet of paper, a glass of water, a box of salt.).

Ask and answer question in such groups as

What's this? It's wood.

What's this? It's paper.

Is this wood? Yes, it is.

Is this paper? No, it isn't.

Is this paper? No, it isn't.

Is this paper? yes, it is.

Then «alternative questions».

Is this wood? Yes, it is.

Is this paper? No, it isn't.

What is it? It's wool.

Etc.

4.The pupils now repeat the words and sentences in imitation of the teacher, and answer such sentences in imitation of the teacher, and answer such questions as are given above, If the procedures here suggested are carried out systematically and regularly, the pupils will give the right sort of answer with fair correctness, and will not use such broken English as This is book or This is a money

Than the questions will be asked in irregular order, the teacher mixing in

questions of the previous lesson, e. g.

What's this? It's leather.

And what is this? It's a box.

Is this water or ink? It's water.

Is what the table? Yes, it is.

And that? That's (It's) the door.

Is this sand? No, it isn't.

5.The pupils themselves talk together, naming object and substances and asking each other questions.

How to teach the names of persons and the substitutes for such names. (Leading question: Who?)

At a fairly early moment in the course it becomes necessary to teach words designating persons and the way to talk about person. Until then we can talk only of this, that and it, and it is time to talk of I, he, she, etc. The what? Must now be supplemented by the who?

Start by I and you. The simplest approach is by means of such statements as

I am A. You are B.

Decide whether A is to stand for «the teacher», or for «Mr, (Mrs, Miss) brown», and whether B is to stand for «the pupil» or for the actual names of the pupils.

The question-and-answer work will run on the lines suggested in the previous chapters.

Am I A? Yes, you are.

Am I B? No, you're not.

Are you A? No, I'm not.

Are you B? Yes I am .

Are you A or B? I'm B.

Am I A or B? You're A.

Then follows who.

Who am I? you're A.

Who are you? I'm B.

This introduction of who should be followed at once by the «series» system:

1. Am I A? Yes, you are.

2. Am I B? No, you're not.

3. Who am I? You're A.

Etc.

Then introduce he and the names of the pupils,

Is he (pointing) C?

Is he D?

Who is he?

Then

Who am I?

Who are you?

Who is he?

For the «third person» (the person spoken of) some teachers use pictures representing well-known persons. And the word she can be taught only if a woman or the picture of one is present.

Allusions of course can be made to various persons known to the pupils. Or references can be made to various tradesmen and others, e. g. «the baker», etc.

When place and position have been introduced, you may state (and follow by appropriate questioning):

I am here,

You are there.

B is at the door.

Etc.

Where am I?

Where are you?

Where's B?

Etc.

We are and they are better introduced after the more elementary parts of Number.

Or the teaching of I am, you are, he is, etc. can be combined with the

teaching of actions.

What am I doing?

Are you sitting down or standing up? Etc.

The above examples apply to the teaching of I, you, he, she, we, they, but before long we must teach the corresponding word me ( you ), him, her, us, them.

The easiest way to do this is to include such words in the lessons on place and position, as suggested in the latter part of Chapter IV.

B is behind me.

I am in front of you.

Looking at C. who is next to him?

Who is standing in front of us?

Is A between B and or is behind them?

I am near you. You are near me.

I am not far from B: I am near him. etc.

These words can also be drilled in connection with the actions of giving, receiving, etc.

I am giving you these matches.

You are receiving them from me.

Who is giving them?

Who is receiving them?

Who am I giving them to?

Who are you receiving them from?

The question here arises as to whether to use the more classical

To whom am I giving them?

Or the more usual

Who an I giving them to?

In modern spoken English, who with the preposition at the end of the sentence is the current from and the one that the pupils will hear first. For that reason it should be taught here consistently. The few remaining natural uses of whom (which mainly occur in certain types of relative clauses) should be left until a stage of progress when differences of usage can be explained. Here are some «series» of suitable questions and answers:

1. Am I giving you a letter? Yes, you are.

2. Am I giving you a telegram? No. you're not.

3. What am I giving you? You're giving me a letter.

4. who's giving it? You are.

5. Am I giving it to you? Yes, you are.

6. Am I giving it to B? No. you're not.

7. who am I giving it to you? You're giving it to me.

8. who's giving it to you? You are.

1. Are you receiving a letter? Yes, I am.

2. Are you receiving a telegram? No, I am not.

3. What are you receiving? I'm receiving a letter.

4. Who's receiving it? I am.

5. Are you receiving it from me? Yes, I am.

6. Are you receiving it from C? No, I am not.

7. Who are you receiving it from? I'm receiving it from you.

8. who's receiving it from me? I am.

Notice here the peculiarities of word order, e. g.

I am giving you a letter. ( Not; I am giving to you a letter.)

I am giving it to you. ( Rarely or never: I am giving you it.)

I am giving him something or I am giving something to him.

If you should be puzzled over these two forms of word order and not too well acquainted with theories of grammar, it would be well for you to make s study of your own natural speech and to teach what you yourself use. You will probably generally say, e. g. I paid the man the money or I paid it to him, and more rarely I paid the money to the man, but you will probably never say I paid him it or I paid him it or I paid it him.

One the same plan can be taught.

I'm sending the letter to X by you.

I'm buying a box for you.

You are selling the box to me.

I'm paying you for the box.

I'm paying you the money.

Here may also be introduced:

Who's the giver ( receiver, sender, buyer, seller, etc)?

Who's sender of this letter? etc.

Words and combinations of words recommended in teaching names standing for persons.

Who? Whom?

I me myself

You you yourself, yourselves.

He him himself

She her herself

It it itself

We us ourselves

They them themselves

Mr_____, Mrs____, Miss____, Doctor____, Professor____, etc.

Somebody, anybody, not anybody, nobody, everybody, the teacher, the pupil, the butcher, the baker, etc. the doctor, the dentist, the policeman, the milkman, etc.

The giver, the sender, the receiver, the writer, the reader, the postman, etc.

How to teach the expression of past and future actions

(Leading question: what did you do? what have you done? what are you going to do? )

By an extension of the procedures set forth in the preceding two chapters you teach how past and future actions, the passive form etc. are expressed.

The two chief past forms

There are several ways of describing past actions; among others:

I took it.

I have taken it.

I was taking it

I had taken it.

I have been taking it.

I had been taking it.

I used to take it.

The first two are of greater importance than the others. Foreign students of English have considerable difficulty in distinguishing between the two forms, I took it. They will say, for instance The man came, and you naturally imagine that the man has gone away again, and discover that the man has come and is here waiting.

1. The form I took, he came, I was, etc.

When teaching this form, join it to a word or expression of past time such as yesterday, at one o'clock, last week, a long time ago, etc

Just now and then are perhaps the most convenient expressions of past time. So proceed with such statements as:

I took the box just now.

Then I opened it.

Then I took out a match.

What did I do just now?

What did I do then?

Did I take the box just now?

Then did I open it?

Adding such a «series» as

1. Did I take the box just now? Yes, you did.

2. Did I take the book just now? No, you didn't.

3. What did I take just now? You took the box.

4. Who took it? You did.

The various procedures set forth in the preceding two chapters are adapted as above. For instance a pupil performs the «action chains» returns to his place and says:

Just now I stood up.

Then I went to the door.

Then I stopped.

Then I opened the door.

or the others say

Just now A stood up.

Then he went to the door.

or

Just now A and B stood up.

Then they went to the door.

At a later stage free questioning can be carried out on such lines as

What did you do yesterday?

What did you do then?

Where were you at 9 o'clock?

2. The form I have taken, he has come, I have been.

When teaching this form, couple it with the words now, not yet, or use it in the expression I have just taken. Statements and questioning on such lines as:

I (You) have just taken a box.

Now I (You) have opened it.

Not I have taken out a match.

Have I (You) just taken a box?

What have I (You) just taken?

Adapt the «action chains»

I've just stood up.

Now I've (just) come to the door.

Now I've (just) stopped.

Now I've (just) opened the door.

A has just stood up.

A and B have just stood up.

Free questioning on such lines as:

Have you taken my book?

The future

The shall and will forms are rather complicated. The most general and useful rule is:

I (We) shall (shall not, shan't)…

You (He, They) will (will not, won't)…

Shall I (we)…?

Shall (or will) you…?

Will he (they)…?

Another and simpler way of expressing the future is by the use of the form going to.

I am (I'm)

He is (He's) (just) going to take (see, give,)

We (You, They) are

Note that we generally avoid I'm going to go and I'm going to come and say simply I'm going and I'm coming.

One of the most practical ways of drilling this form is for you (the teacher) to show that you are on the point of doing something and to ask:

What I'm going to do (take, open) now?

For instance you go to the door, take hold of the handle, turn it and otherwise show that you are going to open the door:

Teacher: What am I (just) going to open?

Pupils: You are (just) going to open the door.

Teacher: Am I (just) going to open the door or to shut it?

Pupils: You are (just) going to open it.

Teacher: Who is (just) going to open it?

Pupils: You are.

Teacher: Tell me what I'm (just) going to do.

Pupils: You are (just) going to open the door.

Then you may contrast:

I'm (just) going to open the door.

I've (just) opened the door.

What am I (just) going to open (shut, take, do) ?

What have I (just) opened (shut, taken)?

Note how you yourself generally speak of future action, whether you use the shall and will forms or the going to form, and when you use them.

Note particularly that shall I generally has the meaning of «please».

How to teach other grammatical categories.

How to teach number. (leading question: how many?)

The first of such lesson should be given as soon as the pupils are able to name objects and substances.

First begin by teaching the plural form of the nouns already learnt. Show two or more suitable objects, then say what they are and follow up by the usual types of question-and - answer work.

These are books (pencils, buttons, etc.).

Those are doors (windows, tables, walls, etc.).

Are these books? Yes, they are, etc.

Are those doors? Yes, they are, etc.

Are those books or pencils?

What are these (those)? They are books, etc.

Are these (the) books? Yes, they are.

Are these (the) pencils? No, they're not.

What are they? They're (the) books.

Etc.

Then compare and mix singular and plurals.

This is a book. These are books.

That's the door. Those are doors.

Etc.

Is this a book or a button?

Are these books or buttons?

What's this? What are these?

What's that? What are those?

Etc.

Now teach the numbers, not all together but in batches. Decide whether to introduce them all in one lesson or whether to distribute them over two or more lessons.

Then proceed by making such statements as

Here are two books.

There are three pencils.

I've got four buttons.

You've five chairs.

X has got six boxes.

Etc seven matches.

The most natural form of question and answer is

How many books are there here?

How many doors are there here? There two.

But as this form may be rather difficult and confusing on account of the two meaning of the word there it is better to start with

books

pencils have I

How many buttons have you got?

matches has X

etc.

The answer should be

I've got two

And not

I've got two book.

Have I got two books or three?

Have you got four buttons or five?

Have I got five matches or six.

Then put the questions and answers into the «series» form ,e. g.

1.Have I got two books? Yes you have.

2.Have I got three? No, you haven't.

3.How many have I got? You've got two.

4.Who has got two books? You have.

Then contrast two (three, etc.) with only one, only two, etc.

Have I got two books or only one? You have only got one.

You have got two.

Have you got four matches or only three? I have only got three.

I have got four.

Who has only got one match? Etc. You have.

Only one can then be contrasted with several.

Have I only got one match (book, button, etc.) or have I got several?

About now teach there are (in the sense of' there exist and not in the sense of over there in that place are') ,and add the place occupied by the objects;

There are two books on the table.

There are three pencils in this box.

There four chairs over there.

There are x chairs in this room.

There are x people in this room.

Questions;

Are there two books on the table?

Are there two or are there three books on the table

How many books are there on the table?

How many people are there in the room?

Are there several doors (teachers, etc.) in this room or only one?

In the «series» form:

1.Are there two books on the table? Yes, there are.

2.Are there three? Now, there are not.

3.How many are there on the table? There are two.

And this variation:

Are there three books on the table? Yes they are.

Are they on the floor? Now they're not.

Where are they? They're on the table.

What are on the table? The three books are.

The reading and writing of figures

The most appropriate moment for the introduction of the reading and writing of figures (or numerals) is when the names of the numbers are first taught.

Write the numerals 1 to 9 on the blackboard, point to each in regular or in random order until the pupils recognize and name them without hesitation.

Show how the numerals are written (direction and order of strokes, etc.) and then call out numbers the pupils writing them from dictation either on the blackboard or on paper. The pupils will subsequently read out what they have written.

At a further lesson teach the written of the numbers above 10, either in the order 10, 11, 12 … or 10, 20, 30…, and proceed in the same way as the numbers up to 10.

Words and word combinations recommended in teaching

The expression of number.

How many? One, two, three, etc

Here, are, there are, these are, those are,

I have (I've got), you have (you've got), he has (he's got).

Only several

Many more most plenty (of) few fewer fewest some any no none all

Books glasses pictures

Bottle keys pins

Boxes knives rings

Brushes leaves screws

Buttons letters stamps

Cards maps sticks

Chairs matches stones

- 18 -

Cigarettes nails tins

Doors newspapers walls

Drawers pens windows

How to teach measure and quantity. (Leading question: how much? how far? etc.)

Start by teaching the use of some, any, no, none in connection will substance.

Select suitable substance for the drills, such a paper, money, sand, wood, soap or water.

Note in what cases we put such words as some or any in front of the names of substances and when we put nothing at all in front of them.

Compare:

This is paper. I have (want, etc) some paper.

(We rarely say: This is some here's (There's) some paper'

Paper.) [ We rarely say: I have ( want )

Paper. Here's ( There's ) paper.]

Note also when we say some and when we say any.

I have some paper. There is some paper here.

Have you any paper? Is there any paper here?

I haven't any paper. There isn't any paper here.

Note that some, any etc., are often used without being followed by any noun:

Yes, I have some.

Have you any paper? No, I haven't any.

Yes, there is some.

Is there any paper? No. there isn't any.

Note that not any is more common and generally more natural than no or none. Compare:

I haven't any paper. I have no paper.

There isn't any paper. There is no paper.

I haven't any. I have none.

There isn't any. There's non e.

Drill chiefly by mean of these two examples (with their variations and modifications):

I've got some paper!

There's some paper on the table.

The simplest questions:

Have you got any paper? Is there any paper on the table?

What have you got? What is there on the table?

The questions and answers in form of «series»:

1. Have you got any paper? Yes, I have.

2. Have you got any money? No, I haven't.

3. What have you got? I've got some paper.

4. Who's got some paper? I have,

1.Is there any paper on the table? Yes, there is.

2. Is there any money on the table? No, there isn't.

3. what is there on the table? There's some paper there.

4. Is there any paper on the table? Yes, there is.

5. Is there any paper on the floor? No, there isn't.

6. where is there some paper? There's some on the table.

This will be a convenient place to teach the use of some, any, no, none, in connection with plural nouns (although properly speaking such teaching comes under the heading of number and not of quantity). The drills are of the same nature as those described above, except that instead of paper, sand, etc.

Examples:

Have you got any matches (boxes, books, etc.)?

I haven't got any matches (etc) ?

Here are some matches (etc).

Give me some matches (etc).

Various types of statements and answers corresponding to the question how much? Should be taught at this point. Begin by teaching a lot (of), plenty (of), much, a little,

If you observed your own speech carefully you will note a few curious point about your use of the word much. You will find that this word sound quite natural in such examples as: not much; I haven't got much money; is there much of it?; I don't think there's much; this is too much; there isn't as I thought, etc., but you rarely or never say, for instance: give me much; he's got much money; I took much.

In such cases you very naturally replace much by such expression as a lot (of), lots of, plenty (of), a good deal (of), a great deal (of), a large amount (of), etc.

Take these facts in consideration when you are teaching, and avoid making your pupils say things that you would not say yourself.

The most practical procedure is as follows. Put a comparatively large quantity of sand, paper, money, straw (or whatever the most convenient substance may be) on the ground and a much smaller quantity on the table (or hold it in your hand) and then proceed:

There's a lot ( plenty ) of sand on the ground?

There isn't much (sand) on the table (in my hand).

There's only a little (sand) on the table (in my hand).

Is there a lot of sand on the ground?

Is there much sand on the ground?

Is there much sand on the table?

Is there a lot of sand on the table?

How much sand is there on the ground? There's a lot.

How much sand is there on the table? There isn't much.

There's not much.

There's only a little.

Is there a lot of /much sand on the ground or only a little?

Not much?

Is there a lot of /much sand on the table or only a little?

Not much?

Then find real examples suggested by the actual environment, e. g.

Is there much (a lot of) water in the river now or only a little?

Is there much (a lot of) dust on the road?

Have you much (a lot of) money in your pocket or only a little?

An exercise on counting money may follow at this point.

How much money have I (got) in my hand? Count it.

How much money have I (got) in my hand now?

Then follow exercises on more and most. (Less and least can also be taught if there is no risk of giving the pupil more words at the time than they can absorb.)

There more sand on the ground than on the table.

There isn't so much sand on the ground as on the table.

There's less sand on the ground than on the table.

Is there more sand on the ground that on the table or is

there more sand on the table than on the ground.

Is there as much sand on the table as on ground or isn't there so much?

Then (after distributing few small coins):

You haven't (got) much money, you've only got…

A has (got) more money. He's got…

I've (got) the most money. I've got…

Who has (got the most (least) money: you or I?

If the pupils have already learnt can, can't , the questions can be varied by

Can you see much/a lot of sand on the ground (table?

How much can you see?

How much money can you see in my hand? etc.

This is a convenient place to teach the use of a lot (of), plenty (of), more most in connection with plural nouns (instead of with substances), together with many, few, fewest.

What has been said above concerning the peculiarities of the word much also applies to many.

The procedure is the same as that described above. Put a comparatively large number of objects (e. g. matches) on the ground and a much smaller number on the table (or hold them in your) and then proceed:

There are a lot (plenty) of matches on the ground.

There are not many (matches) on the table (in my hand).

There are only a few matches on the table (in my hand).

Are these a lo of (many) matches on the ground?

Are these a lo of (many) matches on the table?

How many matches are there on the ground? There are a lot.

There are not many.

How many matches are there on the table? There aren't many.

There are only a few.

Are there a lot of (many) matches on the ground or only a few? (not many?)

Are there a lot of (many) matches on the table or only a few? (not many?)

Then find real examples suggested by the actual environment, e. g.

Are there many houses in this town (village, street, etc.) or only a few?

Are there many fish in the near here or only a few?

Are there many wild animals in this part of the country or only a few? Etc.

A similar treatment is to be recommended for teaching all and every.

All the sand is on the ground; none of it is on the table,

All the money in on the table; none of it is on the ground. etc.

All the sand is not on the ground; some of it is on the table.

All the money is not on the ground; some of it is on the ground. etc.

All the matches are on the ground; none of them are on the table.

All the matches are on the ground; some of them are on the table. etc.

All the people in this room are sitting; none of them are standing.

All the people in this room are not sitting; none of them are standing.

Every one of the matches (people, etc.) is … ets.

You have all got your books (hat, etc).

Every one of you has got his book (hat, etc).

Such words as both, either, neither, each can be taught on similar lines.

Here are two boxes (stones, pencils, etc)

Both of them are large (white, long, etc.)

They are both large (while, long, etc.)

Neither of them is small (black, short, etc.)

Are both of them large (white, long, etc.) or is one large and the other small (white and the other black, long and the other short, etc.)?

Find other examples, such as

Are both of these doors (Are these doors both)open or is of them short?

Are both of these men(Are these men both) tall or is of them short?

Are both of these boxes(Are these boxes both) full or is one of them empty? etc.

Here are two boxes (etc).

Neither of them is small; both of them are large.

This one isn't small; the other one isn't small, either.

Which of them is small? (Neither is).

Which of them is large? (Both are.)

Is this one small? No, it isn't.

Is this one small? No, it isn't (small),either. Etc.

Which of you two men is English? Neither (of us is).(Neither (of them is)).

Which of these two windows is broken? Neither (of them is) .

Which of these two books is yours? Neither (of them is)

Which of these two books is mine?

Which of my hands is on the table? Both (of them are).

Each is taught in the same way but in connection with three or more objects or persons.

Each of these three boxes is large; none of them are (is) small.

Each of these three men is tall; none of them are (is) short.

Is each of these three boxes large?

Is (are) none of them small?

Note-there is no need here to distinguish very sharply between each, every and all.

Although properly speaking such expressions as a piece (sheet) of paper, etc; a piece (lump) of rock, etc; a bottle (glass, etc.) of water, etc. come under the heading of quantity they are best treated as if they were simple nouns and taught according to the plan outlined in chapter I.

Find opportunities, if possible, of teaching

A pound (pint, yard) of…

A tin (bottle, box) of…

And (in answer to how long?)

One inch (two inches) of…

One foot (two feet) of …

And (in answer to how far?) 20 (30, 40 etc.) feet (yards, miles) away.

Words and combinations recommended in teaching

The expression of quantity.

How much? Much more most a lot of plenty

Little less not much

Some any none all

Brass earth linen steel

Bread flour money stone

Cardboard fur paper straw

Chalk glass rice string

Cloth gold rock sugar

Coal grass rope tea

Coffee hair rubber thread

Copper ink salt tobacco

Cord iron sand water

Cork lead silver wood

Cotton leather soap wool

How to teach possession (Leading question: whose)

An early place in the course must be found for teaching at least my mine, your, yours. The procedure fairly obvious: talk and question about things possessed by the speaker and the person spoken to.

Decide which object are to be spoken about. If your hat and the pupils' hats are there, talk about them. Or talk about the chairs or seats or places occulted by the pupils. Or distribute such object as matches, stone or sticks. Or, better still, let parts of the body be the objects spoken about. For instance.

This is my head, That is your head.

Is this my head? Is this your head?

Is this my head or your head?

Is this my head or my foot?

Then

Whose head (hand, arm, nose, etc.) is this?

Then the «series»:

1. Is this my head? Yes, it is.

2. Is this your head? No, it isn't.

3. Whose head is it? It's your head.

4. Is this my head? Yes, it is.

5. Is this my head? No, it isn't.

6. What is this? It's your head.

Then introduce mine, yours.

This had (stick, etc.) is mine.

That hat (stick, etc.) is yours.

Is that hat mine or yours?

Whose hat is this? etc.

And the «series»:

1. Is this hat mine? Yes, it is.

2. Is this hat yours? No, it isn't.

3. whose hat is it? It's yours.

Our, ours can be introduced by such examples as

Are those my hat or yours? They are our hats.

They are ours.

Whose coats are those? They are ours.

The above exercises can be recapitulated and developed by such examples as

Is this my nose or my mouth?

Are those my arms or my legs?

Is that your right hand or your left hand?

Point to my head.

Touch your heads (knees, feet, etc.)

Whose seats is this? whose seats are those?

Whose shoes are those: yours or mine? etc.

Before introducing his - hers, their - theirs teach the `s form.

That's A's hat.

Is that A's hat or B's hat?

Is that A's hat or his stick?

Drill in the usual way.

Then

It's A's hat.

Is that A's hat or mine? It's his hat.

It's his.

It's B's place.

Is that B's place or yours? It's his place.

It's his.

A and B, stand up. Hold up your right hand.

Look at A and B. Are those their hands or yours?

Are they holding up their right hands or their left hands?

Are those seats yours or theirs?

For her - hers it will probably be easier to use sketches on the blackboard or pictures.

Belong to, which is just as common and often more used then the possessive words, should be taught rather later, because of the difficulty connected with do, does etc. It will be taught by such examples as.

This book belongs to me.

Does this book belong to me or to you?

To whom does this book belong? or Who does this book belong to?

The same applies to own:

Is that her own car?

Who owns this house?

and continue by talking and questioning about objects belonging to various people.

Words and combinations recommended in teaching possession.

Whose?

My mine my own

Your yours your own.

His his his own

Her hers her own

Its its its own

Our ours our own

Their theirs their own

Belong to

Parts of the body

Arm(arms) eye(eyes) knee(knees) shoulder

Back face leg (legs) throat

Beard finger (fingers) lip (lips) thumb

Cheek foot (feet) moustache tooth (teeth)

Chest forehead mouth wrist

Chin hand (hands) nail (nails)

Ear (ears) head neck

Elbow heel (heels) nose

Articles of clothing, etc.

Belt hat shoe(s)

Boot jacket shoelace(s)

Button pocket shorts

Cap puttee(s) sleeve

Coat shirt sock(s)

How to teach the describing of objects and persons (Leading question: which? What…like? What sort of?)

You have been teaching the pupils to name objects and substances, to answer such questions as Who? Where? How much? How many? Whose?

In the meantime you should have given them opportunities for describing things and persons, saying what they are like (large, small, white, black, good, bad). You could begin doing this from about the third lesson.

Begin by very simple descriptions, such as those of color and size. Talk first of objects and then of persons.

To make the work easy for you, you should collect and prepare a number of common objects of various colors and sizes.

Take some books, pencils, boxes, buttons, nails, sticks, stones, hats, (made by folding paper of different colors), etc. Paint some of them with the commonest colors. Be careful to provide contraries so that you may compare white with black, large (big) with small, long with short, etc.

There are two ways of using such words (adjectives).

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