Macmillan Books for Teachers

Since TP is in many ways an attempt to simulate the real situation then it can be argued that it is always the students' needs that should be satisfied - that teaching points set for TP should always be aimed at the students in the class, irrespective of the stage in the training course. Often a coursebook forms the basis of the teaching programme - a coursebook that has been chosen with the students' needs in mind. In addition, in many teaching practice situations trainees have to teach classes which are already constituted and which are following a course which has been in progress for some time; they are perhaps part way through a coursebook. They may be actual classes which are part of the teaching programme offered by the institution.

The advantage of this approach is that, even if the classes are specially arranged for TP, the situation is much more like real life, the trainees¹ attention is drawn immediately to the students and away from their 'performance', there is an opportunity for the integration of techniques, and most importantly the goodwill of the students is more likely to be maintained if they feel they are getting 'real' lessons and are not just being used as guinea pigs.

The disadvantages arc that trainees often feel they have been thrown in the deep end, there are too many things to think about at once, they are having to use techniques and teach language points and skills that may not have been covered on the course, and that any consequent negative feedback is unfair. In addition, it may mean that the trainees never have the opportunity to practise certain aspects of teaching if the syllabus is wholly directed by what the students demand. However, it must be stressed that peer teaching of specific techniques and skills throughout the course can do much to obviate this problem. Many of the tasks in this book are designed with this in mind.

In practice it is usually best to aim at some compromise between these two extremes of making the guidelines totally trainee-centred or totally student-centred. It is important to focus the trainees' attention on the students' needs, especially as regards level, past learning experiences and interests. You need to discuss the balance of language and skills work appropriate to the class and to what extent language needs to be revised rather than presented. However, it is also possible to reduce the difficulty of the trainees' task by not asking them to deal with tricky points of grammar, to set up elaborate multi-media activities or to devise their own material - particularly at the beginning of the course when some of them may be concentrating on getting the basic techniques under control. It should be possible to focus on those areas that trainees have some familiarity with and which, with some preparation and support, will be useful for them to tackle in class and at the same time provide enough variety to keep the students happy.

2 Who devises the TP guidelines?

Again there are various options:

The institution

Having a bank of guidelines to particular activities and materials saves work for the TP supervisor and for the trainees and ensures a certain standard in the guidelines set. In centres where a number of training courses take place, having TP guidelines organized in this way ensures that students get a varied and balanced diet if they are taught by more than one group of trainees. However, they are frequently unintegrated and can have a very disjointed effect. In addition, the system can be quite rigid - the guidelines may fit in with the training timetable if the timetable for all courses run by the institution is fixed, but it cannot pretend to address (except in a very broad way) the needs of the students or the individual needs of the trainees. This is especially so if the trainees are not encouraged to omit, supplement or modify points. Moreover, as neither the trainer nor the trainee 'own' the points there is less commitment to making them work and a greater tendency to blame the TP guidelines if things go wrong.

The overall teacher-training course tutor or director

This has the advantage that techniques, approaches, ideas, etc can more easily tie in with what trainees are learning on other parts of the course and it gives the trainer greater overall control. Depending on the number of trainees on the course this can be very time-consuming and it must be done in close liaison with the TP supervisors. Also, unless the points are made specific to a group of students, it has the disadvantage of making the students' needs secondary.

The regular teacher of the group

This is appropriate when the trainees are attached or 'apprenticed' to a particular group. It is likely that the trainee will start by teaching part of a lesson planned by the group's teacher and build up to taking over whole lessons. This can work well as long as the teacher liaises with the teacher-training course tutor so that what the trainee is being asked to do fits in with what is happening on other parts of the course.

The trainees' supervisors, when they know the group of language students being taught on TP

This has the advantage that teaching points can be tailored to the students on a day-to-day basis and so reflect the real teaching situation more closely. It also has the advantage that particular teaching skills can receive the amount of practice appropriate to the individual trainees in a group. Such an approach, however, demands supervisors with a great deal of experience and knowledge, and plenty of time. They also need to liaise closely with the course tutor to ensure that what is being asked is not too much out of phase with what is happening on other parts of the course.

The trainees

As they must eventually make the decisions about what to teach it is useful to involve them as early as possible. Group discussions about students' needs can precede suggestions as to what could be taught in the next series of lessons. The trainees, armed with a checklist (see The aims of teaching practice on p 190) and with the help of their supervisor, can decide which areas they need to cover and how this would fit in with the students' needs and the lessons of the other trainees. This is particularly useful if TP points are based on a coursebook. Towards the end of the course the trainees alone can be responsible as a group for decisions concerning what to teach and the activities and materials used over a series of lessons. The advantages of such an arrangement are that the trainees are being trained to be independent, to work closely with colleagues, and to take responsibility for their own decisions. It approaches quite closely the real world of teaching they will soon be entering. On the other hand, as with most student-centred activities, it is much more time-consuming. It also carries more risks: trainees are much more likely to meet disaster occasionally. It is also important to check that a weak trainee is not sabotaging, albeit unwittingly, the efforts of the other members of the groups causing frustration and lowering morale.

The coursebook

This may be considered more a 'what¹ than a 'who' but don't forget that coursebooks are written by people! Basing the main points of the lessons on a syllabus set down by a coursebook has a number of advantages:

* It is what the majority of teachers do in real life.

* It provides a framework within which the trainees can plan lessons.

* It gives continuity and progression which is evident to the trainees and to the students.

* It makes it easy for trainees to see how their lessons link with those of other trainees.

* It saves the course tutor or supervisor having to spend a lot of time devising TP guidelines.

* A modern coursebook contains focused treatment of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary and integrated skills work.

* It is a ready-made source of tried and tested activities and materials.

* It has accompanying materials - cassettes and student workbooks.

* It has a teacher's book which is usually invaluable in stating aims and objectives, outlining procedures and mentioning pitfalls to be wary of.

The main objections to using a coursebook are that it prevents trainees from exploring a wide range of materials, and possibly devising their own; it can make trainees too accepting of what is in the book and not questioning or creative enough; the coursebook may not suit the students' needs or fit in with the techniques the trainees need to practise. To some extent some of these objections can be overcome if the following steps are taken:

* Don't decide on a coursebook immediately. Let the trainees spend the first couple of lessons getting to know the students and their needs. Their supervisor can suggest or specify activities from a number of published sources, including coursebooks: 'getting to know you' activities, questionnaires, short tests, etc.

* Spend time with the trainees looking at a range of coursebooks that could be used with their group and guide them as to one that would be suitable.

* Make sure that the trainees approach the coursebook critically - that they read the teacher's book carefully but also do their own research into the language, that they examine exercises and texts for difficulties specific to their students (perhaps not highlighted by the book's authors) and think constantly of ways of lifting the contents of the book 'off the page' and bringing them to life by introducing their own realia and visuals. (See Chapter 4 Section 1: Published materials for guidance to the trainee on coursebooks.)

* Encourage the trainees to see the coursebook as a resource for creating a lesson. Discuss which parts could be omitted, which could be used and which need supplementing with activities and materials from other sources. Explore ways in which the book could be 'personalized' to suit the needs and interests of the students. (See also Chapter 4: Using materials.)

* Encourage the trainee (together with other trainees if they share a class) to devise a scheme of work for a series of lessons, based on the coursebook -in which the aims, learning outcomes and activities are clearly set out. (See Chapter 8: Planning lessons.)

Of course there is nothing to prevent you from combining one or more of these options, depending on the type of course and the stage it is at.

3. What should be included in TP guidelines?

There are many things one may identify but again it will depend on the level of the students, the stage of the course the trainees are at, whether they are using a coursebook with the students, the amount of time you can spend with trainees working out the details of the TP guidelines, etc. Generally the earlier in the course you are the more detail you give.

In the early stages of TP it is helpful for the aims of the lessons to be discussed and made clear to the trainees. As the course progresses the trainees should be able to identify and articulate the aims themselves. Lesson aims can be set out under headings such as:

Grammar, for example - to revise the regular form of the past simple and to introduce some irregular verbs.

Functions: for example-to present and practise ways of asking for directions.

Topic /vocabulary: for example-to revise and introduce a number of words associated with a bank.

Skills: for example - to practise listening for key words in a radio news bulletin.

It is very helpful to encourage the trainees to distinguish between teaching aims and intended learning outcomes. A teaching aim might be To present and give controlled practice of... whereas an intended learning outcome might be By the end of the lesson the students should be able to...

It is also important to differentiate aims from activities; for example, not to do a roleplay but to practise making a complaint.

Other things you may want to identify include:

* the steps required to achieve an aim (for example - 1 Arouse interest and elicit context by showing a picture; 2 Set some general gist questions; 3 Play the cassette);

* parts and timing of a lesson: for example-a icebreaker (5 mins); b reading (15 mins); с speaking (15 mins). (This is minimal guidance for later in the course);

* the materials and aids to be used and any reference to resource material, coursebooks, reference books, etc;

* the activity (for example - a gap fill, a matching exercise, a roleplay);

* things to watch out for in general or with these particular students (common problems for the nationality group, or difficulties particular students have had in the past).

4. How and when should guidelines be presented to trainees?

TP guidelines should be written down. Even when you and the trainees have worked out a programme together, make sure that you have an agreed set of points written out for you both to refer to before, during and after the lesson. Telling the trainees what they are to teach orally without having anything written down has severe disadvantages:

* Without anything to refer to trainees can feel insecure.

* It can lead to misunderstandings.

* Trainees can easily forget what they have been told, especially the subtleties.

* It can lead to recrimination if things go wrong (But I'm sure I was supposed to...!).

It should be clear how the lessons of different trainees or of trainees and regular group teachers fit together. Both trainees and students benefit from a timetable so that they all know where they are going. Trainees should have copies of each other's lesson guidelines.

Points should be given or agreed well in advance so there is plenty of time for preparation. You may want to adopt a procedure as follows:

1 the setting or agreeing of what is to be taught;

2 trainees prepare lesson plans;

3 lesson plans discussed with trainers and/or with other trainees;

4 trainers make any necessary re-adjustments;

5 trainees teach;

6 feedback.

If stage 4 is to be worthwhile, stage 3 must happen in sufficient time - trainers must be careful not to suggest sudden changes to lesson plans at such short notice that trainees are thrown. Such discussion is very rewarding in the early days and irons out radical problems inherent in the preparation of lessons as opposed to the execution. If possible and especially at the beginning of a course or when trainees are having to teach a new group, it is advisable to give over class time to preparation so that it can be done in conjunction with trainers.

As noted above, you and the trainees should work out a system to ensure that they are given the opportunity to cover a wide range of teaching skills (to avoid, for example, one trainee giving three presentations but no skills lessons). If they are sharing lessons they should have equal turns in beginning or ending a lesson.

The role of the supervisor varies according to how TP is organized. In many situations the supervisor may be the teacher-training course tutor. With an apprenticeship scheme it may be the regular classroom teacher and in other situations the supervisor may be someone whose job on a course is primarily to supervise TP.

Often the supervisor must fulfil the dual roles of developer and cvaluator. On some courses supervisors not only set TP points but may also give considerable help and support to trainees at the planning stage. On others the supervisor's function may be limited to the practical sessions themselves. While there are occasions when the trainees may teach unobserved, or be observed only by their peers, or recorded on video so that 'self-observation' is possible, the usual arrangement is for the supervisor to observe and give feedback on the lesson. The assessment of the supervisor may then be noted by the centre and used in the overall evaluation of the trainee's performance.

In general, try to observe the following guidelines:

* Regard yourself as a developer of the trainee's teaching skills rather than just a critic and evaluator of lessons.

* Don't show off your knowledge. Simplify what you have to say in direct relation to how experienced the trainees are.

* Give advice and ideas, but be careful not to overload trainees with more than they can handle.

* Try to see things from their point of view. They lack the knowledge and experience you have.

* Blame yourself first if things go wrong-not the trainee.

* Try to avoid doing or saying anything which undermines the trainee's confidence. ,

* Be aware of the damaging effect of negative criticism. Even the most confident trainee can only take so much. Most adults are not accustomed to being criticized. A training course, especially an intensive one, is stressful. Try to avoid adding to the stress. On the other hand, be honest - even if it is sometimes necessary to say difficult things. If done sensitively it is less harmful in the long run than letting a trainee think that everything is fine when it is not.

During the lesson(s):

* Show your support and confidence. Try to look relaxed and interested in what is going on.

* Be silent during the lesson. Don't talk to the other trainees or to the students.

* If the trainees are teaching a group of students don't interrupt, even if the trainee is in some difficulty. Trainees need to learn what it is to be responsible for a class and build up their confidence in their ability to conduct it. Class teachers to whom trainees are apprenticed might find it necessary to break in if they feel the trainee is doing damage to the class - but because it is so undermining of confidence interruption should be avoided if at all possible. (If trainees are practising on their colleagues, on the other hand, interruption could be justified.)

* If things go wrong, think about what you could have done to help prevent the situation. Don't undermine the trainee's confidence by showing despair or exasperation.

* Don't be too obvious a presence in the eyes of the students. If you are too friendly or chatty with the students, take the register, organize the classroom, answer their queries, the students will forever regard you as the real teacher and never feel 100 per cent confident when the trainees are teaching. The aim is for the trainees to take responsibility for everything that takes place in the classroom and for the language students to turn naturally to the trainee teachers for help.

What are your aims?

As a TP supervisor you may have a number of responsibilities. For example, your assessment of the trainees' performance may count to a greater or lesser extent towards the decision as to whether they attain a pass grade for the course. However, you should remember that your first duty is not to judge the trainees but to make them self-critical and aware of how far they can affect what goes on in the classroom, so that on future occasions they are able to improve by themselves, even if a supervisor is not around. Make sure feedback is ongoing, that there is a logical development, that it is seen as contributing to improving the trainees¹ skills and that it encourages effective trainee self-criticism.

Making feedback effective - organization

When organizing TP feedback you may like to consider the following suggestions:

* Conduct feedback in privacy and comfort. The trainees can't talk freely about others' lessons or listen happily about their own in a public place.

* Leave yourself enough time. A rushed feedback session can be a waste of time.

* Consider the best time to conduct feedback. Usually feedback takes place immediately after teaching, before anything is forgotten. Often the trainees are anxious to know your opinion straight away and don't want to be left on tenterhooks. However, there are disadvantages in launching straight in: often the trainees are tired and tense; they can feel very raw and vulnerable, particularly if they feel things did not go very well; they don't have any time to put the lessons into perspective and to evaluate them other than on an emotional level. TP feedback conducted after a time interval can be a much more productive, rational and efficient process when tackled with fresh minds and after everyone has had a chance to gather their thoughts.

* It might be worth keeping the form and style of feedback consistent within the same institution if trainees see different supervisors.

* If separate supervisors have been observing lessons they should keep in close touch with the training course tutor or director, not only to provide consistency of approach and attitudes but so as to know what areas have been covered and to liaise about points that could be included in future input sessions.

Making feedback effective - your approach

Every supervisor develops his or her own style. You may like to consider the following suggestions and think about how they fit in with your approach:

* Focus on the aims of the lesson and whether they were achieved or not, before looking at individual techniques and how well they were done.

* The main issues tend to get obscured by the detail unless the summing-up is good.

* Unless observing trainees arc given a strict brief- perhaps based on an observation task - misleading, unhelpful and sometimes hurtful comments can be made.

* It is difficult for you not to take over if you feel the trainees are not coming up with the points you think ought to be made.

* The trainees can see their discussion as just going through the motions until you give 'the answers' in the summing-up.

Comment

The trainees can take quite a bit of responsibility for eliciting feedback for their

own lessons: they can set questions they want answered by the observers.

Advantages

* There is less concern for the supervisor's view.

* An even greater sense of independence is encouraged.

* The trainees are more prepared for 'real-life teaching' when they may have to rely on colleagues to provide feedback on their teaching.

Disadvantages

* Poor chairing can ruin feedback.

* Uncertainty about your role can cause the trainee to feel insecure.

5. Structured discussion

This can take a variety of forms:

* The trainees who taught can be paired up with trainees who observed. They spend some time agreeing on particular points (perhaps those based on an observation task). The trainees who taught can then report back to the group on their discussion of those points.

* Each trainee lists the three best points and the two worst points about a lesson, then pairs off with another trainee to compare lists and to thrash out the three best and two worst from both their lists. The pair then groups with another pair and performs the same task. This can be repeated until all the trainees agree.

Advantages

* It is good for the dynamics of the training group.

* A lot of important issues get discussed.

* It gives all the trainees a chance to contribute.

Disadvantages

* It can take a long time.

* It is possible for all the trainees to miss the point.

* The second version is only possible when more than one trainee has observed the same lesson.

6. Free-wheeling discussion

Advantages

* The informality-can reduce the pressure and discourage talk about the teacher's 'performance'.

* Points of concern you never imagined can come up.

Disadvantages

* Lack of guidance can create insecurity and frustration.

4 Giving feedback on lessons observed

7. Self-criticism with comments from you

After the lesson the trainee writes a criticism of his or her own lesson (perhaps based on agreed criteria or on a set of questions written by you during the course of the lesson). The criticism is handed in to you and then discussed. Alternatively, written comments can be added by you and the criticism returned.

Advantages

* It encourages self-awareness and independence.

* The criteria or your questions can focus the trainee's attention on important issues.

* It can save time if you want to sec a number of trainees individually.

* It is particularly useful when you want to discuss a trainee's progress in private.

Disadvantages

* The trainee needs time in which to write the criticism - it is more useful when the feedback session is held the following day.

* Unless the trainees are given clear guidelines they may feel uncertain of what is required.

* It is probably not useful at the beginning of a course.

Comment

If you have access to video-making equipment the lesson can be videoed. The video can then be watched by the trainee before he or she writes the criticism and even referred to during the ensuing discussion.

8. Feedback from students

If you feel it appropriate you can get the trainees to elicit feedback from the students - perhaps in the form of a questionnaire or a structured discussion. Questions should probably not focus on whether the students like particular trainees but rather on the programme: Do they feel that they are getting enough grammar? Is the balance of skills work right? Is the work too easy, too difficult or just right? The results of the survey can then be discussed and future lessons considered in the light of students' comments.

Advantages

* Getting feedback from students is an important part of the teaching process. This is an opportunity to help trainees become skilled in this area.

* It gives them a greater feeling of responsibility for the class and their lessons.

Disadvantages

* It can seem very daunting for new and trainee teachers and it is difficult for them not to take adverse criticism personally.

* The students need to understand the purpose of such a session and be guided in their discussion if they are not to lose confidence in their 'teachers'.

* It can only be useful if the group of students is made up of people who have been attending consistently for a number of lessons.

Written feedback

With peer teaching, where the focus is on techniques, feedback is usually immediate and leads to the trainee having another go. Oral feedback is all that is necessary. On other occasions written feedback instead of, but usually in addition to, oral feedback is very useful.

One common practice is to use a book or pad which gives carbon copies so that both the supervisor and the trainees have a record of comments and both can look over a series of lessons. The lessons of each trainee can be documented in a separate book or, if the trainees are in a group, one book can be used for the group. At the end of the course the book can be taken apart and the relevant papers for each trainee filed separately. Some supervisors like to give all trainees in a group copies of written feedback for all lessons - their own and their colleagues'. In this case it is convenient to photocopy the feedback sheets.

What are the advantages of giving written feedback?

* Points can be made to individuals in writing which cannot easily be made in a group feedback session. It is often better to concentrate on matters of group interest in the oral feedback and leave individual comments to the written notes.

* Written feedback can reinforce points made in oral feedback - there is twice the chance that the trainee will take an important point on board.

* In written feedback the various points discussed in oral feedback can be put into perspective. Perhaps something that was discussed at length was not really the main point to be drawn from the lesson,

* A written record can be referred to by the trainee and used as a basis for future work. It may contain points that the trainee wasn't able to take on board in the rather stressful atmosphere of the oral feedback.

* For the trainer the written feedback can form an important part of the records kept on the trainees - to assess progress and, if necessary, as documentation that will contribute towards the awarding of a course grade.

* If the trainees change TP supervisors the written records are very useful to the trainer taking over.

* In the rare cases where a trainee is under a misapprehension about how well he or she has done on the course the written feedback forms can be used to back up the assessment of the TP tutor or course tutor.

Layout of notes

As with the formats for oral feedback you will have your own way of doing things. Below are some suggestions. They should not be viewed as totally different approaches: different methods may be best suited to certain situations or stages in the course and you may want to combine methods or use different methods on different occasions.

Running commentary

Take notes as soon as the trainee begins teaching, writing down a running commentary as the lesson goes on. This requires a considerable alertness and an ability to watch, listen and write at the same time but it has the advantage of giving both you and the trainee a fairly accurate reminder of what went on from minute to minute. You can also stage the comments according to the stages of the lesson, perhaps with the help of a copy of the trainee's lesson plan handed in beforehand. However, this approach, where comments are undistilled, sometimes prevents trainees from getting an overall balanced picture of the general strengths and weaknesses of a lesson and can lead to a lot of crossing out and apologies.

Considered comments

Take notes as the lesson progresses and either convert them into considered comments as the lesson draws to a close or, if feedback is to take place the following day, write them up after the session in preparation for the feedback session.

Focus on certain areas

Tell trainees or, after discussion, come to an agreement that the session is only going to concentrate on certain areas. This helps to focus attention, to remedy problems, and saves trainees from seeing reams of comments on every aspect of their lesson.

Two columns

Divide the page into two columns, one saying what was good, the other making suggestions for improvement, then at the bottom an overall comment. Usually you can't start writing immediately as you end up with too many comments. It is better to wait a few minutes for a few examples of a problem to occur before you commit it to writing. You can, of course, keep rough notes on a separate sheet.

Questions.

Instead of (or in addition to) writing comments, you can write a number of questions for the trainee. These questions form the basis of the oral feedback session and replies are added at this time. You may wish to give the questions to the trainee for consideration before the oral feedback session. (See Point 7 under Types of oral feedback on p203.)

Alternatives

For each activity, don't comment but list as many alternative activities as you can think of to accomplish the same aims. Then give an overall comment. This helps the trainees to be more flexible and creative in their approach but can be rather discouraging if the trainees feel that their choice of activity was inferior.

Printed form

Some institutions prefer to have a printed form. The form is filled in by the

supervisor and a copy is given to the trainee. The headings might be as follows:

If necessary, some headings may have sub-divisions (Stage 1, Stage 2, etc) to indicate which stage of the lesson the comment refers to.

It is sometimes better not to write your overall comments until you have discussed the lesson with the trainee as points may seem to be more or less important as a result of the discussion. Also, you may want to add a few notes to your copy after you have given the trainee his or her copy. These notes can comment on:

* the degree of self-awareness shown by the trainee in feedback;

* a grade for the lesson or a projected grade if one is required at the end of the course;

* anything a future supervisor or the course tutor might need to be aware of concerning the trainee.

Finally, it is important to note that these are just some of the ways in which feedback can take place. Other ways not detailed include the use of learner/trainee diaries or records that can provide a personal dialogue with a supervisor or tutor; the formalization of whole-group feedback from TP in such a way that input sessions on the course can be modified as trainees' needs become apparent; etc.

Some common difficulties encountered in TP feedback

Often difficulties can be predicted and forestalled. You can ask the trainees to read Chapter 1: Approaching teaching practice, follow up with a group discussion before TP begins, and remind trainees of particular points during the course. Even so, you may have to cope with one or more of the following problems:

* Trainees who seem to accept everything but who change nothing. It can help to set specific targets and get the trainees to write down one or two personal aims on future lesson plans. In feedback focus on these aims and leave the trainee in no doubt as to whether they have been achieved or not and that failure to achieve these aims means lack of progress. (See Chapter 8: Planning lessons.)

* Trainees who are very defensive and who often try to blame others for their own shortcomings - you and other teachers on the course, the other trainees, the students. Make it clear to trainees that, ultimately, they are responsible for their own lessons. Often teachers do not work under ideal conditions but they have to do their best in spite of difficulties.

* Trainees who undervalue their work. Some students lack confidence and may need reassurance, especially at the beginning of a course. Sometimes, however, trainees are falsely modest and start every evaluation of their lesson with wails of Oh, it was awful/ Make it clear that you expect trainees to be realistic in their assessment and that the development of self-awareness is an important aspect of the course.

* Trainees who overvalue their work. Sometimes trainees are too easily satisfied with certain aspects of their lesson to the neglect of other crucial aspects. A common comment is / think the students really enjoyed that! about a lesson in which little or no learning took place. Take the trainee through the aims and intended learning outcomes of the lesson and make it clear to him or her whether they were achieved or not.

* Trainees who, towards or at the end of the course, claim that they were not told how badly they were doing. It is difficult, especially on a short course, to tread the fine line between encouraging and reassuring on the one hand and letting someone know that they are failing to meet the required standard on the other

That is why it is crucial to give the trainees a clear and honest idea as to their overall development after each observation, preferably in writing. You may have to talk to the trainee in private or in a special tutorial. Problems can arise if the trainees change TP supervisors during the course. They often view their first supervisor as 'nicer' and 'more encouraging'. Liaison between supervisors is important so that trainees get a consistent view of their progress.

Many teacher-training courses rely on recruiting students to take part in classes specially formed for teaching practice. It can be quite difficult to find and to keep enough students so that the 'class' resembles a real-life class. Here are some ideas you might like to consider.

Before the course

* Design attractive posters and leaflets, display them on local noticeboards and distribute them to information agencies (libraries, tourist offices, etc), local schools, colleges and universities, hospitals, hotels and restaurants.

* Make it easy for students to enquire about the course.

* If it is very difficult to recruit locally you may consider laying on transport.

At the beginning of the course

* Make it easy for the students to enrol.

* Make sure the trainees know how important it is to be welcoming.

* You may consider charging a small sum for the course - on the premise that people value more what they have to pay for. You may agree to refund the fee if students attend most classes (say 80 per cent).

* Tell the students that a register will be taken and regular attenders will receive an end-of-course certificate.

* You may consider offering additional facilities - use of a library or self-access centre, use of catering facilities, and even free refreshments.

* You can promise a free book (perhaps the coursebook being used for TP or the workbook) to those students who attend most of the classes.

During the course

* Obviously try to ensure that the lessons given by the trainees are as good as possible, without sacrificing their training to keeping the students at any cost!

* Keep emphasizing to trainees how important the teacher/student relationship is and how responsible they are for this relationship. Encourage them to talk to students before and after lessons, to enquire about absences; in short, to do everything they can to make the classes worthwhile for the students.

At the end of the course

* Arrange a party for the trainees and the students.

* Make sure the students have information about any future courses.

It is clear that the 'job description' of a TP supervisor is a very exacting one which can include taking on the role of counsellor, negotiator, friend, support, organizer as well as assessor and developer. As a trainer you should expect to receive training, guidance and continuing support from the training centre where you work. You should also seek and receive feedback on your own performance.

Further reading

Parrott, M. 1993 Tasks for Language Teachers (CUP)

Wajnryb, R. 1992 Classroom Observation Tasks (CUP)

Wallace, M. 1991 Training Foreign Language Teachers (CUP)

Glossary of terms

accuracy

The ability to produce grammatically correct sentences.

acquisition

The process by which a person learns a language is sometimes called acquisition - especially if the language is 'picked up', as with a first language, rather than 'studied'.

authentic (text and task)

Authenticity refers to the degree to which language-teaching materials have the qualities of natural speech and writing. Texts which are taken from newspapers, magazines, etc and recordings of natural speech taken from radio and television programmes, etc are called authentic materials. An authentic task is one which would be done 'in real life'.

backchaining

A language-teaching technique in which the word, phrase or sentence is divided into parts, and then the students arc taught to say it by repeating the last part, then the two last parts, etc, until the whole item is repeated. For example: -lion, -ation, education, education.

CALL

Computer-assisted language learning. CAL stands for computer-assisted learning.

choral repetition (also chorus repetition)

When a teacher asks a whole group or class to repeat an example together.

communicative activity

An activity in which the student uses the language they have at their command to provide or elicit from other student(s) information or opinions hitherto unknown.

concept (checking, questions)

Methods the teacher uses to determine to what extent students have understood the language being taught.

context

The language that occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or a sentence. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word or phrase. The general context can also provide a social setting for the language and is a guide to the appropriate use of words and phrases.

contraction, to contract

The reduction of a word and often its combination with another word. For example: / am into I'm, should have into should've.

controlled practice

Practice in which the teacher guides or limits the students' use of language - such as by providing questions to be answered, sentences to be completed, or words or pictures to follow.

creative practice (also known as freer practice or the production stage)

Practice in which the students use language (perhaps newly introduced items) more freely, with little or no contro! by the teacher. They can express their own ideas and opinions.

cued practice

Practice in which the students' language is produced in response to a cue given by the

teacher. Cues can be words, signals, pictures, actions, etc. For example:

Cue Response

time What time is it?

day What day is it?

deductive learning or approach

Learners are taught rules and given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules when they use the language. By contrast see inductive learning or approach.

drill

A technique commonly used in language teaching for practising sounds or sentence patterns in a language, based on guided repetition. See also cued practice.

echo

Teachers echo when they repeat language provided by students. For example: Teacher: What day is it today?

Student: It's Tuesday.

Teacher: Yes, it's Tuesday.

elicit

To bring out students' knowledge by asking questions and providing guidance towards answering questions.

ESP

English for special purposes: for business, medicine or law, for example.

extensive (usually extensive reading, sometimes extensive listening)

Reading (or listening) in quantity in order to gain a general understanding of what is read (or heard). Extensive reading, for example of fiction, is intended to develop good reading habits, to enable students to acquire vocabulary and structures and to develop pleasure in reading.

fluency

The features which give speech the qualities of being natural, including effective pausing, rhythm and intonation. The ability to produce written or spoken language with ease, to communicate effectively and smoothly, though not necessarily with perfect grammar or pronunciation. Fluency is sometimes contrasted with accuracy (see above).

freer practice

See creative practice above.

function

The purpose for which language is used. In language teaching functions are often described as categories of behaviour: eg requests, apologies, complaints, etc. The same function can often be expressed using different grammatical structures.

generative situation

A situation or context which naturally produces a number of examples of a particular language item or pattern.

gist

The general understanding. The term gist reading is sometimes used to refer to when a student reads through a text very quickly to get a general understanding. The teacher may then ask gist questions to check that understanding.

global (listening or reading)

Listening or reading for a general understanding of the whole text, as opposed to an understanding of the details.

grading

The arrangement of the content of a course or coursebook so that it is presented in a helpful way. Grading affects the order in which words, word meanings, tenses, structures, topics, functions, skills, etc are presented.

guided practice

Practice which takes place within a framework set up by the teacher. See also cued practice.

inductive learning or approach

Learners are not taught grammatical or other types of rules directly hut arc left to discover or induce rules from their experience of using the language. By contrast see deductive learning or approach.

information gap activity

A situation where information is known by only one or some of those present. Students use the language they have at their command to bridge the information gap - by asking questions, giving information, etc. This is sometimes also known as a communication gap. The students communicate to bridge the gap.

intensive (reading)

Unlike extensive reading, intensive reading is generally at a slower speed and may involve rereading all or part of the text. The reader pays more attention to detail and seeks a more thorough understanding.

interaction

Two-way communication between language users.

metalanguage

The language used to analyse or describe language.

microte aching

A technique used in the training of teachers, in which individual teaching skills are practised under carefully controlled conditions. Often one trainee teacher teaches a part of a lesson to a small group of his or her classmates.

mingle activity

When students move around, speaking in pairs or groups which are constantly being formed and reformed, often in a random fashion, as at a party.

model sentence/structure

Used to describe any item/aspect of language given to the class as an example. This is also referred to as the target language or structure.

monitor

The teacher monitors when he or she listens to the students and compares what is being said with what is intended. Students can also monitor themselves, sometimes making instant corrections to utterances they have just made. The term monitoring is also used more loosely to refer to when the teacher checks that an activity is going according to plan, that the students are following instructions correctly, etc.

monolingual/multilingual group

In a monolingual group all the students share the same first language. In a multilingual group there are students with different first languages.

nominate

To call upon an individual student by name.

pairwork (open and closed)

In open pairwork two students exchange language across the classroom with the other students listening. In dosed pairwork students talk privately in twos, with all the students in the class working simultaneously.

peer teaching

Classroom teaching in which one student (or trainee) teaches another, or others.

personalize

To make an example of language of interest to (an) individual student (s) or to fit an individual student's situation.

presentation

The introduction of new items, when their meanings are illustrated, explained, demonstrated, etc and other necessary information given.

process vs. product

Where the 'doing' of an activity is considered to be as important as or more important than the final result or end-product.

productive skill

Speaking and writing skills. Also sometimes referred to as active skills.

realia

Actual objects and items which are brought into a classroom as examples or as aids to be talked or written about. Examples may include such things as photographs, articles of clothing, kitchen utensils, items of food.

receptive skill

Listening and reading skills. Also sometimes referred to as passive skills.

scan

A reading technique used when the reader wants to find a particular piece of information without reading or understanding the whole text.

skim (skim-read)

A type of rapid reading when the reader wants to get the main idea(s) from a text.

staging a lesson

Organizing the different parts of a lesson so that they follow on logically and smoothly to make an effective whole.

structure (grammatical)

A sequence of linguistic units that are in a certain relationship to one another. For example, the structure called the present perfect is made up of have + past participle.

STT

Student talking time.

subskills (of reading or'listening)

Those skills or techniques such as predicting, skimming, scanning, analysing which make up the general receptive skills of listening and reading.

syllabus

A description of the contents of a course and the order in which they are to be taught/learned.

target language/structure

See model sentence/ sinicture.

text

A piece of written or spoken language.

TTT

Teacher talking time.

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