Methods of teaching foreign languages in non-classical secondary schools (the latter half of the 19th - early 20th centuries)

The analysis of the basic methods for teaching foreign languages at non- classical secondary schools of the latter half of the 19th -- early 20th centuries is presented.

In order to develop new, more effective foreign language education media and methods and complete the task of ensuring proper acquisition of foreign languages by students of secondary educational institutions, it is important to appeal to the history of domestic educational theory and practice, in particular as regards substantiation of inclusion of foreign languages in the content of school education, their teaching priorities tracking, analysis of languages teaching organization, forms and methods of such activities and a number of other factors, which enables to avoid admitted mistakes, track the dynamics of the educational area development, identify efficient ways of teaching foreign languages in today's school education.

Such renowned educators as K. Ushynskyj, O. Letnikov, V. Shroder, V. Stoyunin, D. Tykhomyrov, P. Kapterev, V. Charnoluskyj and others paid attention to the history of emergence and functioning of non-classical secondary schools; they resorted to interpretation of the specifics of activity and development of those educational institutions, studied the content and forms of teaching organization.

Among the contemporary Ukrainian researchers, whose works place special emphasis on the history of emergence of the organizational principles, content and forms for training foreign language teachers, specifics of activities of the educational institutions of this profile are

N. Borysova, A. Dolapchi, O. Misechko and others. Works by such Russian authors as O. Myroliubov, V. Vetchynova, A. Kamyzina and others are devoted to this problem. educational school foreign language

However, there is still no integrated, holistic and systems study of the under consideration.

The study purpose is to analyze the basic methods for teaching foreign languages at non- classical secondary schools of the latter half of the 19th -- early 20th centuries.

The socioeconomic transformations substantially influenced development and establishment of upper secondary education. In particular, the beginning of the latter half of the 19th century was characterized by heated disputes both in educational circles and within the general public over what direction should be given to the comprehensive secondary school -- classical or non-classical. At the same time, society's eyes were fixed on foreign languages as a notable educational factor [2, 181].

One can consider as an attempt to reconcile the disputing parties the revision initiated in 1860 by the Academic Committee of the Main Schools Department of the then current statute of upper secondary and non-classical schools and preparation of the draft of a new one that provided for the existence of three types of non- classical secondary schools: two types of public schools with required two (Latin and Greek) and one (Latin) ancient languages, as well non- classical upper secondary schools, where two modern languages (German and French) were learnt instead of the ancient ones. In such a way, a step was taken in the direction of the general education content differentiation and the educational process specialization at different types of upper secondary schools.

The new “Statute of Upper Secondary and Secondary Schools” (1864) approved after three versions virtually introduced into the secondary education system the “principle of duality” that allowed coexistence of purely classical and non-classical upper secondary schools, “with more extensive development at the latter of modern languages and sciences, the study of which was required so insistently by the spirit of the age.”

Consequently, a new page was opened in teaching foreign languages from the 60s of the 19th century notable for considerably redoubled attention to both ancient and modern languages as one of the most important components of general education, on the one hand, and as a requirement of new socioeconomic realities of the time, on the other.

The domestic technique for teaching foreign languages was based on the principles of foreign pedagogy, in particular German and French, which showed brisk expansion in the 19th -- early 20th centuries. The new technique for teaching languages was built on the pattern of the technique for teaching dead languages. At the early 19th century, the comprehensive task of teaching foreign languages came to the fore as a major purpose. Learning a foreign language at school was regarded only as a means of logical thinking development. Therefore, grammar, compared to logic, is the main teaching object at school. With that in mind, students are only initiated to reading letters and their totality. Such an idea of the commonality of languages and absolute coincidence of concepts in the content and mode of their expression gave to representatives of translation methods a prerequisite for regarding word-for-word translation as one of the basic principles of teaching a foreign language. However, such a technique did not facilitate comparative study of two language systems but was aimed only at mechanical collation of language facts keeping, in such a way, within the intuitive technique of Latin teaching, which did not help learning modern languages. At the same time, the translation method was used for a considerable time at educational institutions of the period under examination [15, 16].

With time, this method had two types: grammar-translation and textual-translation. Supporters of the first type upheld teaching of individual words and sentences, which illustrate certain grammatical phenomena, that is, grammatical rules of the target language. Adherents of the other method substantiated teaching a foreign language based on a textual unity.

At secondary educational institutions and at non-classical schools in particular, the grammar-translation method was prevailing in learning modern languages, which had for an object a general educational nature.

Followers of the grammar-translation method built the educational process in the following way: first of all, students were invited to learn a grammatical rule and then words and their translation into the native language. Having learnt grammar and words, students had to translate individual sentences from the native into the foreign language. Those sentences were examples illustrating the learnt grammatical rules and words [15, 19]. Every so often, by no means related words and sentences were selected in textbooks, so that the text content did not prevent students from commit certain symbols to memory. Adherents of the textual-translation method considered a textual unity rather than grammar as a basis of teaching a foreign language, which enables students to more consciously approach material under study.

Due to development of the political and economic bases of society in the 70s of the 19th century, learning modern foreign languages within the public education system turns from formal into reproductive teaching designed for practical application. Rapid growth of industry provoked extension of trade relations among various countries. A quest for market outlets began. Industrial enterprises were equipped with new, sophisticated technologies, whose servicing required specially qualified workers. But those trained by the old scholastic school did not meet the then existing requirements. There was a need for people with acquired technological, commercial knowledge, skilled workers able to speak, read and write in foreign languages. This determined a need for reconstruction of the secondary school and teaching foreign languages in particular.

That period was marked with reforming teaching foreign languages at of many West- European countries, which was due to inconsistency of the old methods with the new tasks facing secondary educational institutions, as well as the state of pedagogical thought of the time.

Although translation methods were still used at the secondary school, new revolutionary methods, however, gained recognition and began to be widely used in the late 19th -- early 20th centuries. Those methods were variously known (as intuitive, natural, genuine, and direct), but methodological literature designates them as direct and natural methods. Their adherents (F. Gouin, Caret, I. Alge and others) believed that during a foreign language learning it is necessary to create the same conditions and use the same method as that used during child native language natural acquisition [15, 40]. The overriding purpose of learning foreign languages using the natural method was to teach students to speak a foreign language. It was thought that having learnt to speak students will be able to read and write in this language; practical purposes were pursued first of all. This method provided for demonstrativeness, complete exclusion of the native language during the teaching process, broad involvement of the visual and acoustical apparatuses of the human organism, active participation of students.

Supporters of the natural method, denying the role of thinking while teaching foreign languages, overestimated the role of sensory perception and memory. At the same time, they were confident that a foreign language should be learnt immanently, without comparing it with the native language. Representatives of the translation method, teaching only a written language, disregarded the features of a living spoken language; on the contrary, adherents of the natural method demanded new material to be first learnt verbally. One of the great merits of the Reform figures consisted in their attention to phonetics: teaching pronunciation of a foreign language and development of a system of phonetic exercises, which enabled to more successfully acquire the sound system of a foreign language [15, 68]. At the same time, intuitionalism forming the basis of the reformist methods is deemed their weakness, as well as the principle of immanence, which excluded the native language from teaching a foreign one.

Based on the natural method, the direct method of learning foreign languages arose resting on the same principles as the natural one. It began to be called direct because using the native language in lessons was ousted just as in case of the natural method. Command of the spoken language came to the fore. Learning was hinged at the initial stage on specific topics, mainly of an everyday nature. With time, texts from the people's and country's life -- native speakers were used. The primary objective consisted in acquaintance with culture of the people whose language is learnt. It is held that the direct method achievements include development of the technique for teaching phonetics, a system of exercise for the spoken language development and vocabulary acquisition, as well as extensive use of demonstrativeness. With this in view, the direct method played a significant role in the emergence and establishment of the methods of teaching foreign languages, although exclusion of the native language from the educational process is considered as the main disadvantage [5, 255].

Representatives of the trend “reforms” on the Russian ground were not absolutely unanimous, as S. Nikonova notes: some of them were moderate in views on using the natural method in teaching foreign languages (E. Mittelsteiner, V. Farmakovskyj, S. Petrunin); others maintained more extreme positions and became, in point of fact, founders of the Russian version of this method (I. Hlyvenko, L. Lioshe, A. Plester- er, E. Runge, M. Fenu, B. Fleischgut) [13, 11]. The Russian version of the natural method was notable for allotment of an important role to the native language when learning a foreign language, acceptance of the need for grammatical knowledge accumulation and systematization, a tendency to use a foreign language learning not only for a practical purpose but also for broadening of the general worldview and youth education, development of the power of observation and scientific thinking in them.

By the early 20th century, mixed methods of teaching foreign languages that represented a combination of the translation and natural methods supplant the natural method.

Among domestic scholars, K. Ushynskyj deserves attention; he actualized in his works the problem of a technique for teaching foreign languages. K. Ushynskyj condemned the scholastic teaching system at the existing secondary institutions and simultaneously advocated expansion in the number of hours per week devoted to learning foreign languages. In the learning process, he championed an important role of review, translation and comparison with the native language [16].

In his article “On Teaching Foreign Languages” (1868), R. Orbynskyj, having analyzed the state and methodological orientation of teaching foreign languages at educational institutions, focused on an important educational aspect -- translation from a foreign into the native language and vice versa, during which it is necessary to observe the following conditions: first, translation must be authentic; second, it must be accurate, that is, concisely and briefly convey even those passages of the original, which do exclude word-for-word sentences; third, it must be distinguished by smoothness, that is, must not contain phrases, expressions and metaphors that touch the native language feeling; fourth, it must convey not only the content of the original but also all its coloring and nature [14, 597]. The first two conditions, according to the author, are the most important of all. In this regard, it is necessary to be very scrupulous in selection of texts for translation; it is preferable to compile a special reading-book.

As regards the educational effects of translation from the native into a foreign language, they are weaker than the preceding one. Instead, it serves as a still better means for mechanical retention of forms and phrases, and therefore it deserves an advantage over the former at this level. In translation from a foreign into the native language understanding has the lead, in the other case -- skills, although such a kind of translation is useful for practical purposes [14, 599].

Analyzing the state of teaching ancient and modern languages, A. Weisman concluded that when learning the latter it is necessary to strengthen the practical component by increasing the number of translation, reading etc. exercises [4, 5].

The work by G. Nedler deserves attention, where he suggests dividing the seven-year foreign language teaching course into three degrees: junior, with a two-year training period subject to 4-5 lessons a week, middle, also with a two-year training period subject to 4 lessons a week, and senior -- with a three-year training period.

During the first degree training, taking into account the students' age peculiarities G. Nedler recommends to digest all material practically, by means of translation, in the course of which students must directly acquire languages. At this stage, it is expedient to use demonstrative methods, as well as such a form of teaching as conversation. Grammar through reading, written and oral translations lies at the root of learning a foreign language at the middle degree. The senior degree is noted for strengthening of the grammatical aspect of lessons, the principal task lying in reading literary works and their critique as regards content rather than form [11].

Sociopolitical and socioeconomic transformations in society determined strengthening of special education with simultaneous weakening of classical one, which provided for a vital necessity of learning modern foreign languages. At the same time, the outdated language teaching system did not meet the urgent requirements because it implied memorization of words, translation and a large amount of grammatical rules, which represent only a burden for students' memory. The educator offered a suggestion as to improvement of the curricula of modern languages. First of all, to equalize opportunities for the secondary school in terms of the number of lessons on both modern languages. Teaching modern languages should begin with the grade one: to divide the number of hours devoted to learning German between the latter and French [7, 272].

The conversational method with the use of demonstrativeness had a wide distribution among methods applied in reaching of modern foreign languages. In particular, some educators favored English experience (Rossman, Schmidt, Lang and others), namely: a picture is divided into individual groups or categories. Accordingly, students first perceive the picture in full; in its turn, it produces a general impression, acts on emotions, and only afterwards its particular parts are viewed and examined. In this case, it is essential to observe an important condition, viz., it is necessary to try to learn the objects featured in the picture in such an order that students, when repeating, could understand the existing connection and relation between the objects and persons, their qualities and movements.

Along with practical purposes of teaching modern foreign languages, according to L. Mil- itsina, who authored the paper “The Tasks of Teaching Modern Languages” (1907), provisions were made for general educational purposes, to wit, acquaintance with culture of the people, whose language is learnt: country's everyday life, traditions, customs, geography, history, eminent figures of this people, the best works, finally, the political and social order -- this is the material that a teacher must master for educational, character and morale building purposes. In this context, maps, photocopies, pictures, postcards collections, illustrations of magazines, everything up to and including a phonograph, which enables to teach proper pronunciation to students, serve as training resources [10, 179].

At the same time, there arose within the teaching community a problem of class and group teaching of foreign languages, which was due to inefficiency of their learning owing to the presence of 40-50 students in class together with differing training levels and abilities [8, 132].

In summer 1915, the Ministry of Public Instruction directed by P Ignatiev returned to discussion of the school reforming issues, which was evidence of the constancy of the official intentions to strengthen the material nature of secondary education and force foreign languages out of the major education-imparting and culture-forming subjects.

The program proposed to teach one of three rather than two modern foreign languages as in the previous programs in the following sequence: French, English, and German. The advent of English among them emphasized the need to bolster training of teachers of this language. Furthermore, it can be assumed that the change in the sequence of the foreign languages recommended for learning at the secondary school reflected a shift of the foreign policy and foreign economic priorities of the Russian state, especially in the context of the Great War unfolding.

Regarding the technique and methodology for teaching foreign languages, the program drafters, in spite of growth in popularity of the natural method, did not dare declare it state- recognized and allowed teachers a latitude in methods. However, certain comments made in the explanatory note made it clear that the natural technique had not yet been fully put into practice. In particular, teaching the spoken language (narrations) was not recognized as expedient because of its “inconsistency with the desired goal of learning a language” [9, 110]; just as widely translations into Russian were used (although they were already perceived not as grammatical tasks but rather as evidence of understanding of a foreign book and were not literal but literary); written texts still remained the basic material based on which vocabulary and grammar were taught. As to the spoken language, “understanding of the spoken language and its use within certain modest limits” was officially admissible [9, 110].

Consequently, the socioeconomic transformations had a significant impact on development and establishment of upper secondary education, in particular on the emergence of a separate educational area -- non-classical, which determined the topicality of learning modern foreign languages as a vital necessity. The purpose of teaching a foreign language changes from understanding of a foreign book to practical acquaintance with a foreign language. In consequence of which significant shifts are manifest in the technique for teaching foreign languages in the latter half of the 19th -- early 20th centuries. The principal methods for modern foreign languages included the translation method with its two trends -- grammar-translation (based on translation of a text and analysis of grammatical rules) and textual-translation (text analysis and critique). The advent of the natural method was determined by methodological innovations of educators and psychologists of the West and consisted in using demonstrativeness and fiction reading, nevertheless, mixed methods were used in the period under study. Prominent educators, psychologists, methodologists and practitioners, who worked in the territory of the Russian Empire, promoted development of the methodological components of formation and establishment of the system for learning foreign languages in the specified period, exercised significant influence on development of the domestic technique for teaching modern foreign languages.

The research conducted does not exhaust all issues of the problem under study. The organizational forms of teaching foreign languages at non-classical secondary schools of the latter half of the 19th -- early 20th centuries warrant further study.

List of references

1. Алексеев П. Правила и программы всех классов реальных училищ вед. Министерства Народного Просвещения [The Rules and Programs of all Classes of Non- Classical Secondary Schools in Charge of the Ministry of Public Instruction] / П. Алексеев. -- Одесса: Книгоиздательство М. С. Козмана, 1916. -- С. 88.

2. Алешинцев И. История гимназического образования в России (XVIII и XIX в.) [The History of Upper Secondary Education in Russia (the 18th and 19th Centuries)] / И. Алешинцев. -- СПб.: Изд. Богданова, 1912. -- С. 181.

3. Альдингер Ф. О разговорном методе преподавания новых языков [On the Conversational Method of Teaching Modern Languages] / Ф. Альдингер. -- К., 1901.

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Annotation

The basic methods of foreign languages teaching in real schools of the second half of the 19th -- beginning of the 20th century were analyzed: method of translation, which had two directions: grammar and translation (based on a translation of the text and analysis of grammatical rules) and textually-translation (analysis and parsing of a text); natural method, which consisted in using visual aids and reading literature; direct method, mixed methods, conversational with using visual aids etc.

Анотація

Проаналізовано основні методи навчання іноземним мовам у реальних училищах другої половини ХІХ -- початку ХХ ст.: метод перекладу, який мав два напрями: граматико-перекладний (в основі був переклад тексту і розбір граматичних правил) і текстуально-перекладний (аналіз і розбір тексту); натуральний метод, який полягав у використанні наочності та читання художньої літератури; прямий метод, змішані методи, розмовний із використанням наочності тощо.

Аннотация

Проанализированы основные методы обучения иностранным языкам в реальных училищах второй половины ХІХ -- начале ХХ вв.: метод перевода, который имел два направления: грамматико-переводный (в основе был перевод текста и разбор грамматических правил) и текстуально-переводный (анализ и разбор текста); натуральный метод, который заключался в использовании наглядности и чтения художественной литературы; прямой метод, смешанные методы, разговорный с использованием наглядности и т. п.

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