Basic characteristics and academic text selection criteria for teaching philology students English academic reading

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Basic characteristics and academic text selection criteria for teaching philology students English academic reading

Qabas Jameel Rashid Al-Ghanim

The article examines text selection criteria for teaching philology students English academic reading with regard to academic text characteristics. The attention is focused on the research article as a key genre of academic world. The features of academic texts (impersonality, objectivity, neutrality, rationality, content objectivity, descriptivity, accuracy, uniformity, clarity, precision, unambiguity, intertextuality and referentiality, use of unified terminology, avoidance of emotional and expressive elements, carefully and logically organised structure, use of long composite sentences loaded with content words, attitudinal adverbs, frequent nominalization etc., employment of discourse linkers which contribute to the reader's orientation in the text and its interpretations) have been defined and analyzed. The text selection criteria (authenticity, motivating potential, relevance to course topics, content and linguistic accessibility, informational value, scientific novelty, stimulating effect for further activities, text length) have been developed.

Keywords: academic text, article, future philologists, selection criteria, genre, English academic reading.

Особенности академических текстов и критерии их отбора для обучения будущих филологов чтению на английском языке. Кабас Джамиль Рашид Аль-Гханими

В статье исследована проблема критериев отбора академических текстов для обучения будущих филологов чтению на английском языке с учетом особенностей академического дискурса. Основное внимание акцентировано на статье как одном из жанров академического дискурса. Обоснованы и проанализированы особенности академических текстов в целом и статьи в частности: безличностность; объективность; нейтральность; рациональность; точность, четкость и ясность изложения материала; однородность; однозначность; интертекстуальность; использование унифицированной терминологии; избежание эмоционально-экспрессивных средств; логическая структура; использование длинных сложных предложений; использование дискурсивных маркеров, которые способствуют лучшему пониманию и интерпретации текста. Обоснованы критерии отбора текстов: автентичности, мотивационной ценности, тематичности, доступности (содержания и лингвистических средств), информационной ценности, научной новизны, методической ценности, объема текста.

Ключевые слова: академический текст, статья, будущие филологи, критерии отбора, жанр, чтение академических текстов на английском языке.

Особливості академічних текстів та критерії їх відбору для навчання майбутніх філологів читання англійською мовою. Кабас Джаміль Рашід Аль-Гханімі

У статті досліджено проблему критеріїв добору академічних текстів для навчання майбутніх філологів читання англійською мовою з огляду на особливості академічного дискурсу. Основну увагу зосереджено на статті як одному з жанрів академічного дискурсу. Обґрунтовано й проаналізовано особливості академічних текстів загалом і статті зокрема, а саме: безособовість; об'єктивність; нейтральність; раціональність; точність, чіткість і ясність викладу матеріалу; однорідність; недвозначність; інтертекстуальність; використання уніфікованої термінології; уникання емоційно-експресивних засобів мовлення; логічна структура; використання довгих складних речень; застосування дискурсивних маркерів, які сприяють кращому розумінню та інтерпретації тексту. З урахуванням окреслених особливостей, програмних вимог обґрунтовано критерії добору академічних текстів для навчання майбутніх філологів інтенсивного й екстенсивного читання англійською мовою - автентичності, мотиваційної цінності, тематичності, доступності (стосовно змісту та лінгвістичних засобів), інформаційної цінності, наукової новизни, методичної цінності (можливість розробки різних вправ та завдань для вдосконалення вмінь читання та інтегрованих завдань із залученням інших видів мовленнєвої діяльності), обсягу тексту. academic text philology student

Ключові слова: академічний текст, стаття, майбутні філологи, критерії добору, жанр, читання академічних текстів англійською мовою.

Developing reading skills has been one of the main concerns of recent studies in the field of second language acquisition (M. A. Aliyeva, J. Bamford, E. B. Bernhardt, W. Grabe, F. L. Stoller, J. S. Hedgcock, D. R. Ferris, K. Koda, S. D. Krashen, K. Lems etc.). However, teaching philology students English academic reading has not been properly investigated yet. One of the most important questions in terms of academic reading is text selection criteria. To develop proper criteria a number of factors should be taken into consideration among which academic texts features.

The aim of the article is to analyze the main characteristics of academic texts and develop text selection criteria for teaching philology students English academic reading.

Since more than 90 per cent of the journal literature is edited in English [16, p. 24], it has been recognized as an academic lingua franca. Anglo-American academic writing style, which can be considered the standard for academic communication [7, p. 6], has its own peculiarities which need to be analyzed and understood for better comprehension of academic texts. Students should realize the obstacles of academic text reading and be preliminary trained to overcome them or prevent the possible difficulties and comprehension problems.

There are different definitions of text developed by linguists, educators etc. Scientists describe text as a «a verbal record of a communicative act», «the physical manifestations of language» [27, p. 6], which include orthographic symbols (letters of the alphabet or characters) as well as nonverbal elements (capitalization, punctuation, paragraphing, and format) [15, p. 79], a sample of written language that conveys a meaning [14] which is not a collection of random words or sentences [15, p. 79], any communicative occurrence which meets standards of textuality [6] among which the following have been defined: grammatical (reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction) and lexical (repetition, synonymy, collocation etc.) cohesion, coherence (the relation between concepts), intentionality (writer's purposes, attitudes), acceptability (reader's attitude to the text and its information), informativity of the ideas (known/unknown, accepted/unaccepted, grounded etc.), relevance to a situation, intertextuality (correspondence to the ideas from the texts read before) [6].

W. Kintsch and van Dijk [17; 18; 19] distinguish microstructure and macrostructure of the text. The microstructure includes a variety of individual text-based statements, whereas the macrostructure summarises them into general idea of the text. Different ideas are interconnected in a text through cause-and-effect, problem/solution, description, comparison etc. [21; 22]. Comprehension comprises understanding pieces of text as well as its general meaning and ideas; however, it is much easier for the reader to grasp the overall themes (macrostructure) than separate though interconnected statements, ideas and multiple types of information encoded in texts - words, morphosyntactic information, cohesive ties (microstructure) [15, p. 79-80]. So the reader has to understand the overall meaning as well as all the pieces of the text which in case of academic texts may be quite challenging. Moreover, in our opinion a complete overall comprehension is possible only if all the pieces are well understood.

Academic style is realized in academic settings through books, scientific articles, papers in conference proceedings, textbooks, handbooks, and the like. It is interwoven with elements from other styles including the administrative style (found in such genres as project reports, reports for teaching positions, master and PhD theses); the argumentative style (critiques and reviews); the advertising style (book promotions and university advertisements); the media style (public lectures, columns) [25, p. 181-182].

On the other hand, academic style varies in terms of the degree of formality where scholars distinguish strictly scientific, textbook-scientific (or pedagogical functional) and popular-scientific sub-styles [25, p. 181].

Of all the written genres of academic discourse we will focus attention on the research article, which belongs to the strictly scientific sub-style, for the following reasons:

1) according to the curriculum the fourth-year students study a number of linguistic subjects and have sufficient background knowledge to understand at least some articles;

2) the fourth-year students have an appropriate level of language proficiency to read research articles;

3) the fourth-year students are supposed to read scientific texts [3].

4) the length of the articles gives an opportunity to read a variety of them;

5) articles describe latest scientific advances;

6) research articles are the key genre of academic world;

Though demonstrating some background knowledge and level of language proficiency, students are not ready to read all the articles as they can be quite challenging. Therefore a careful text selection should be done according to scientifically grounded criteria which we will analyze below.

To better comprehend an article students should be aware of the peculiarities of the genre and be able to schematize the structure of the texts. Besides, properly organized and prepared pre-reading activities can substantially alleviate the process of reading and contribute to student better comprehension.

Genre is described as a «schematic world with its predictable contours» [13, p. 7], a «category assigned on the basis of external criteria such as intended audience, purpose, and activity type, that is, it refers to a conventional, culturally recognised grouping of texts based on properties other than lexical or grammatical (co-)occurrence features, which are, instead, the internal (linguistic) criteria forming the basis of text type categories» [20, p. 38]. They are used within professional communities.

Our analysis has been done on the basis on 20 articles from recognized journals such as Journal of English Linguistics, International Journal of English Studies, ELT Journal. The analysis has proved the above-mentioned definition of the genre as the article is schematically structured and is predictably framed.

Articles present objective and precise information impersonally, with the language «leaving no room for vagueness or ambiguity». Terminology, logical sentences, precise non-language elements (tables, statistical indicators etc.) are widely used in academic texts. As impersonality, objectivity and neutrality dominate, passive and impersonal constructions are in abundance in such texts [25, p. 182]:

It has been shown that although numerical information often serves as a starting-point in corpus studies, qualitative analysis is a necessary complement [23, p. 312].

When viewed through the variationist lens then, the window of variation for comparative alternation is small in ONZE [9, p. 227].

Impersonal passive constructions are often used with the verbs to suppose, consider, assume, presume, conclude, believe, infer, point out, etc. (It should be pointed out, It can be inferred,

etc.) [1, p. 292].

The academic style is usually supposed to be devoid of emotional and expressive elements, though as M. Tepavceic [25, p. 182-183] we do not agree with it. Such elements may be sometimes used by the authors demonstrating their attitudes if they want to draw attention of the scientific community to some thoughts or make them be accepted.

Academic discourse is prone to intertextuality and referentiality as it features the use of quotes, literature lists, footnotes and other texts referring to the issue under discussion [25, p. 183]. Intertextuality makes us understand texts not as self-contained systems, but the ones with traces of others since they are shaped by the repetition and transformation of other textual structures [5, p. 268]. Intertextuality explains the fact that every article is retrospectively and prospectively connected with other researches and can be regarded as a microtext in some macrotext [4]. It is used to formulate hypotheses, ground the author's ideas, object to some statements etc. Intertextuality demonstrates the author's expertise, his/her understanding of the problem etc.

Intertextual elements, that are widely used in articles, perform the following functions:

* referential which is realized through references to other investigations, sources etc. to inform the reader about other researches closely connected with the article;

* evaluative which shows the authors attitude (positive or negative) to the information presented in another text;

* etiquette that demonstrates the respect to scientific community and particular scientific school;

* decorative which lies in embellishment of the text with quotes or references aimed at softening the style and strengthening the author's ideas [2, p. 18].

The analysis of the articles showed that their structure is carefully and logically organised. English articles are usually divided into parts which makes it much easier to follow the content. The transition between the parts is easy to discern as they are clearly indicated with the help of headings among which we may come across Introduction, Conclusions etc. The parts, which depend on the content of the article, may be further divided into smaller units with their own headings.

No matter how it is called, the article starts with introduction which sets the scene, claims the topic importance and proves the insufficiency of the previous research. The authors usually use the word combinations like «interest in this variation is widespread», «There is an increasing interest in» etc.

The author often indicates a gap in the previous research with the help of negative determiners very little and no. Discourse markers such as although or while placed in the initial position of the sentences show contrast between the need and the existing research [11, p. 24]. The adverb however is often used to highlight the gap:

What remains largely unexplored in the panorama of research on adjective comparison, however, is casual, unmonitored speech [9, p. 219].

The use of the Present Perfect implies that the lack of knowledge about the problem started in the past and has continued to the present moment [11, p. 24]:

It is thus notable that this variable has featured little in variationist research [9, p. 219].

The argumentative effect is obtained with the help of long, composite sentences:

As a complex phenomenon predicated on functional equivalency, adjective comparison seems an ideal candidate for variationist analysis as well, as it may reflect on mechanisms, pathways, and outcomes of change [9, p. 219].

Non-finite forms are also used in abundance to express subordination, impersonality etc.:

Following earlier work on collocation and gender, the aim of this paper is to explore what verbs collocate with the lemmas girl and boy as subject and object and what words modify them in a worldwide corpus of English [23, p. 292].

The variation evinced by historical synthetic comparison (1a, c) and «innovative» analytic comparison (1b, c) is well established, reflecting a long-standing change with modern-day reflexes [9, p. 219].

In the next part the author usually analyses and summarises the existing research. To emphasize what has been done in the field and the connection of the given research to the previous knowledge the Present Perfect is often used. The author describes the research and states the purpose of the article by means of the expressions «the aim of this paper is to...», «the purpose is to.», «the article sets out to ...». Usually the verbs to explore, argue, study, examine, reveal, test, present, situate are used to define the purpose of the article.

The next step is problem analysis which includes scientific literature study. In this part, which is often subdivided into smaller units, the Present Perfect is often used to present what has been done. The author analyses the existing studies, explains them, expresses his/her view on the problem, draws reader's attention to some points by using «in other words», «it is important to note», «related to this», «What we mean by this is that . », «it is thus notable», «we see in the examples above», «a similar argument can be made concerning», «What emerges from this brief review of research», «This would imply that . », «studies have also demonstrated . ».

The degree of the author's confidence is expressed through adverbs obviously, in particular, surely, indeed etc.

The next step usually describes the methodology (the author's approach to the analysis, models, steps and procedures), the tools or programmes used in the research and the results obtained. Authors present the theory and authority they rely on, a detailed explanation of the research conducted, the sources and the tools used. The data provided are organized in charts, tables, diagrams, figures etc. Our analysis proves M. DzeverdanoviC-Pejovic's claim [11, p. 28] that the lexemes from the semantic field of the research experiment are utilised, including the nouns sample, analysis, results, ratings, material, method, finding and data, and the verbs measure, compare, conduct, examine, construct, observe and identify.

Almost every article analysed contained conclusions and / or discussion where Active constructions dominate (though passive are also possible) with the usage of «I/we believe ...», «the results show that ...», «I specifically urge ...», «I am also concerned with ...», «it allows us to think that ...», «It is argued here ...» etc. to summarise the results of the research. Extension of findings is introduced by means of the adverbs finally, thus, in this respect, therefore, furthermore, moreover. Some articles contain suggestions for further research:

Given the limited window of variation and the size restrictions imposed by sociolinguistic corpora, however, more studies of vernacular speech that target adjectives known to vary in written English could help shed further light on this issue [9, p. 127].

Future studies based on language corpora might also take into account the age and gender of the transmitter of messages to establish whether different groups of people convey gender values and ideologies differently [23, p. 313].

We have analyzed the structure of the article and now will study the language of the article.

In the investigation of M. Dzeverdanovic-Pejovic the Textanz programme (Cro Code 2010) was used to examine the basic features of the 20 articles published by recognised linguistic journals such as the Australian Journal of Linguistics, English Language and Linguistics, Journal of English Linguistics, Language and Communication. It was found that the average number of words in the sentences was 21.17. As the average coefficient of readability is 15, the analysed texts turned out to be not among the most readable ones due to the use of long sentences «loaded with content words, attitudinal adverbs, premodifers and frequent nominalisation» [11, p. 22]. The above mentioned results prove the fact that one of the difficulties lies in the length of the composite sentences which can be difficult to understand. As a conclusion, much attention should be paid at the pre-reading stage to sentence analysis to prevent misunderstanding and possible difficulties.

As it has been mentioned above, impersonality is a characteristic feature of the article. However, authors sometimes use personal pronouns I or we presenting the ideas. In this respect M. DzeverdanoviC-Pejovic [11, p. 26] interprets the use of we either as a signal of the author's modesty or as a means of reducing the author's responsibility for the article which weakens the author's position:

Our investigation is thus based on almost 5,000 instances for British English and about 2,300 instances for American English [26, p. 286].

What I have tried to highlight is that comparative alternation is atypical in the panoply of sociolinguistic variables [9, p. 238].

However, we do not interpret the use of we as an indication of lack of author's confidence, but as a special emotional tone which emphasizes the importance of research, its reference to different expert sources and the necessity to further investigate the problem.

English academic texts are believed to be reader-friendly [16], they must fit together logically, and readers are usually helped through the text by means of discourse linkers which contribute to the reader's orientation in the text and its interpretations. Discourse linkers are described as «natural language expressions, whose primary function is to facilitate the process of interpretation of the coherence relation(s) between a particular unit of discourse and other, surrounding units and/or aspects of the communicative situation» [24, p. 132]; have a «core meaning which is procedural, not conceptual, and their more specific interpretation is «negotiated» by the context, both linguistic and conceptual» [12, p. 950]; lexical items obtained from the syntactic classes of conjunctions, adverbials, and prepositional phrases that signal a relationship between the segment they introduce and the prior one [10, p. 130; 12, p. 950].

On the basis of scientific literature [7] and research articles analysis we can make the conclusions that the following discourse linkers are the most prominent and widely used in academic papers:

1. Reminders - expressions which remind the reader of the previously presented material and thus help the reader to understand the new portion of information in connection with the previously exposed. Authors usually employ a combination of a verb (to state, to say, to suggest, to see etc.) and an adverb of time or place: as stated earlier, as suggested above, as already discussed and others; expressions with the personal pronoun we (as we have already seen, as we have already mentioned). It seems to be of great importance in adacemic discourse which presents the results of some investigations and is usually difficult to comprehend.

2. Announcers - expressions which inform the reader what information will be presented in future (As it will be seen in the next section, I shall show below, Further, we shall discuss and so on).

3. Action makers - expressions that outline the immediate discourse activity of the author, such as summarizing, giving an example, outlining etc.: to sum up, to give an example, to outline briefly etc.

The analysis of the articles proved I. R. Galperin's conclusion [1, p. 292] that the words used in academic texts usually preserve their primary logical meaning. There are almost no words with contextual meaning, and usually all terms are provided with definitions to avoid ambiguity or misinterpretation. Usually different definitions are analyzed in an attempt to ground the most suitable one and clarify the author's opinion.

To sum, we have studied the peculiarities of academic texts. The results of the conducted analysis should be taken into account for text selection criteria.

They can be defined as demands to be used to make a decision about the expediency of usage a text for intensive or extensive reading.

In general, text selection criteria for both intensive and extensive reading are similar, though some peculiarities of the types of reading should be taken into consideration.

The first criterion is authenticity. To comply with this criterion the articles for teaching academic reading should be written by scholars whose mother tongue is English which gives students exposure to native-speaker language, demonstrates them examples of good academic discourse and language functioning in a professional context, serves as a sample for students' further academic writing.

The effectiveness of reading comprehension development hugely depends on reader motivation. Researchers subdivide the construct into dichotomies such as intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation and integrative versus instrumental motivation. Intrinsic motivation appears from within oneself, it is not imposed by others, whereas extrinsic motivation develops under the influence of some external factors (e.g., better employment opportunities). Most scholars agree that intrinsic motivation, both integrative and instrumental, is more important and powerful than extrinsic [8].

The survey, conducted among philology students of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, demonstrated that most students are extrinsically motivated as most of them (73 %) indicated that they study the second language first of all for professional reasons. We should not underestimate extrinsic motivation which can be a powerful tool in encouraging students to read extensively. However, it is important for teachers to facilitate the development of intrinsic motivation by selecting texts that arise interest in students, demonstrating them that they can deal with academic texts successfully and can achieve self-selected goals. So the second criterion of academic text selection is motivational which presupposes selection of texts which are of interest to the readers. Texts should stimulate students' cognitive activity, make them think critically.

Another important criterion is relevance to course topics as texts should correspond to the topic areas of the subjects (Lexicology, Stylistics, Literature, Methods of teaching etc.) that have been learnt or are being studied. To be able to understand the article, analyze the information and integrate the new knowledge with the existing one students should be familiar with the topic. It is important to avoid topics that go beyond learned and students conceptual reach as it will have a negative influence not only on the process of reading, but also on motivation to read. Besides, reading the suggested texts should help students in attaining curriculum goals and personal objectives. It is also very important that interdisciplinary links should be focused on. In this case students not only develop reading comprehension, but also enrich their professional knowledge.

The criterion of accessibility is closely connected with the previous one and presupposes content and linguistic accessibility. Both the content and the language of the article can be quite challenging for the students, slow down reading and cause misunderstanding. As for the content, philology students must have sufficient background knowledge to comprehend academic texts. Though in general the fourth year students, who have to demonstrate level C2.1 in reading at the end of the course [3, p. 112], should have enough linguistic knowledge and skills to comprehend research articles, the peculiarity of the genre described above testify that academic reading can cause some linguistic difficulties the most important of which are connected with vocabulary and use of long composite sentences. So the majority of the vocabulary should be familiar to the students and the rest lexical units should be easily translated with the help of dictionaries. It is also necessary that the author style be reader-friendly, and the author convey thoughts clearly and coherently.

Another important criterion is informational value of the text which means that the information presented should be of importance to the reader. It is not the amount of the new information that matters, but its value for the student at present and in future, and how well the new information correlates and integrates with the previous one and whether it can be used further.

The criterion of scientific novelty presupposes selection modern articles from expert sources with high impact factor where scholars present the results of theoretical developments in the field of linguistics and language learning. Among such sources the following can be recommended: the Journal of Linguistics, Linguistic Inquiry, ELT Journal, Journal of English Linguistics, English Language and Linguistics, Australian Journal of Linguistics etc.

The texts should stimulate and serve as a basis for different activities essential for attaining learning targets. They should be thought-provoking and make it possible to elaborate different tasks for students to improve reading comprehension, critical thinking skills, practise use of strategies, use the information from the text in oral and written communication.

The last criterion for text selection is length. We think texts for intensive and extensive reading may differ in length. Reading intensively, students translate the text sentence by sentence into the first language and explain difficult pieces to better comprehend the meaning. As it is quite time consuming, texts for intensive reading should not be too long. The analysis of research articles showed that on average their length varies between 20 and 30 pages. Articles for intensive reading should not exceed 20 pages (we may assume that some parts can be read intensively while others - extensively or just only parts of articles which present the most useful and important information can be read). As for extensive reading there is no need to establish limits for article length. In this case other criteria are of greater importance. It should be taken into account that if a longer texts have been chosen, they should be linguistically and conceptually within students' reach.

To sum up, on the basis of scientific literature analysis we have defined and analyzed the features of academic texts: impersonality, objectivity, neutrality, rationality, content objectivity, descriptivity, accuracy, uniformity, clarity, precision, unambiguity, intertextuality and referentiality, use of unified terminology, avoidance of emotional and expressive elements, carefully and logically organised structure, use of long composite sentences loaded with content words, attitudinal adverbs, frequent nominalization etc., employment of discourse linkers which contribute to the reader's orientation in the text and its interpretations.

Taking into account the above mentioned academic text characteristics as well as curriculum requirements, we have presented and grounded the criteria for text selection: authenticity, motivating potential, relevance to course topics, content and linguistic accessibility, informational value, scientific novelty, stimulating effect for further activities, text length.

It is necessary to point out that not only teachers but the students themselves should know the criteria as they will have to select texts. As for organizing extensive reading it is highly advisable to provide students with the range of texts to be chosen for extensive academic reading as well as to encourage them to look for some on their own and share them with group-mates. It is also useful to create a texts database and encourage students to add texts to the database created by the teacher.

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