Genesis of education of gifted schoolchildren in the United States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom in the XX - early XXI century

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Sumy state pedagogical university named after A. S. Makarenko

Genesis of education of gifted schoolchildren in the United States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom in the XX - early XXI century

UDC 371.212.3(73:71:410)

Maryna Boichenko

ORCID ID 0000-0002-0543-8832 DOI 10.24139/2312-5993/2018.02/063-074

Summary

The aim of the article is to reveal the genesis of education of gifted schoolchildren in the USA, Canada and the UK in the XX century.

Research methods. In the article the following methods are used: general research methods - analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification and generalization, which are necessary for studying the works of foreign scholars; comparative analysis which helped define the common features and differences in the process of gifted education development in the USA, Canada and the UK.

Results. The main criterion for creating the subsequent periodization is the essential changes in the normative framework, content, forms and methods of implementation of GT education in the countries under study, which were carried out, first of all, with the aim of solving the problems of ensuring social justice in education, expanding the educational opportunities etc.

An analysis of the research of the above-mentioned scholars allowed us to identify five stages of GT education development in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom in the XX - early XXI centuries: 1) institutionalization of the educational services (10-30s of the XX century); 2) diversification of the educational services (40-50s of the XX century); 3) mass character of the educational services (60-70s of the ХХ century); 4) modernization of the educational services (80-90s of the XX century); 5) digitalization of the educational services (10-20s of the XXI century).

Conclusions. Conducted analysis of the peculiarities of GT education development in the USA, Canada and the UK during the outlined stages led us to the conclusion about the cyclical character of interest in GT education from the national/regional governments and educational policy-makers. Reforms in the sphere of GT education at all the stages were driven by the economic (economic crisis, competitiveness at the world labor market) and political (national defense, world leadership) factors. Taking into account the fact that modern stage of GT education development deserves special attention, content-procedural foundations of this process should be studied more detailed, at which further research in this direction will be aimed.

Key words: gifted schoolchildren, education of gifted schoolchildren, genesis of gifted education, USA, Canada, UK.

Анотація

Бойченко Марина. Ґенеза освіти обдарованих школярів у США, Канаді та Великій Британії у ХХ - на початку ХХІ ст.

У статті висвітлено ґенезу освіти обдарованих школярів у США, Канаді та Великій Британії у ХХ - на початку ХХІ ст. Виокремлено та схарактеризовано етапи розвитку освіти обдарованих школярів у досліджуваних країнах, зокрема: перший (10-30-ті рр. ХХ ст.) - інституціалізація освітніх послуг; другий (40-50-ті рр. ХХ ст.) - диверсифікація освітніх послуг; третій (60-70-ті рр. ХХ ст.) - масовізація освітніх послуг; четвертий (80-90-ті рр. ХХ ст.) - модернізація освітніх послуг; п'ятий (10-20-ті рр. ХХІ ст.) - дігіталізація освітніх послуг.

Ключові слова: обдаровані школярі, освіта обдарованих школярів, ґенеза освіти обдарованих школярів, США, Канада, Велика Британія.

Резюме

Бойченко Марина. Генезис образования одаренных школьников в США, Канаде и Великобритании в ХХ - начале ХХІ в.

В статье освещен генезис образования одаренных школьников в США, Канаде и Великобритании в ХХ - начале ХХІ в. Выделены и охарактеризованы этапы развития образования одаренных школьников в исследуемых странах, в частности: первый (10-30-е гг. ХХ в.) - институциализация образовательных услуг;

Ключевые слова: одаренные школьники, образование одаренных школьников, генезис образования одаренных школьников, США, Канада, Великобритания.

Introduction

Twentieth century was marked by an increase in attention to the problems of gifted and talented students both from educational theorists and educational policy-makers of the developed foreign countries, including the USA, Canada and the UK. Among these countries, the most controversial educational policy for gifted and talented children and youth have the United States, where, according to the well-known American historian A. Tannenbaum, during the entire period, there was a confrontation between two tendencies - egalitarianism and perfectionism [20]. In order to understand the present-day phenomenon of gifted and talented education in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, we consider it appropriate to highlight the changes that took place at different stages of its development in the countries under study.

Analysis of relevant research. The genesis of the concept of "giftedness" and peculiarities of GT children's pedagogical support organization in the USA, Canada and the United Kingdom in the historical retrospective have been discussed in the studies of such Ukrainian researchers as I. Babenko, O. Bevz, O. Kovalenko, L. Lavrinenko, P. Tadeiev, Yu. Shiika and others. Nevertheless, there is no comprehensive study of the genesis of GT education in the countries under investigation; therefore the aim of the article is to reveal the genesis of education of gifted schoolchildren in the USA, Canada and the UK in the XX century.

Research methods. In the article the following methods are used: general research methods - analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification and generalization, which are necessary for studying the works of foreign scholars; comparative analysis which helped define the common features and differences in the process of gifted education development in the USA, Canada and the UK.

Results

The periodization of gifted education in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, developed by us, is based, first of all, on the research materials of the well-known American, Canadian and British education historians D. Gillard [10], O. Quinlan [16], T Christou [4], A. Tannenbaum [20; 21] and others. The main criterion for creating the subsequent periodization is the essential changes in the normative framework, content, forms and methods of implementation of GT education in the countries under study, which were carried out, first of all, with the aim of solving the problems of ensuring social justice in education, expanding the educational opportunities, etc.

An analysis of research of the above-mentioned scholars allowed us to identify five stages of GT education development in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom in the XX - early XXI centuries: first (10-30s of the XX century) - institutionalization of the educational services; second (40-50s of the XX century) - diversification of the educational services; third (60-70s of the ХХ century) - mass character of the educational services; fourth (80-90s of the XX century) - modernization of the educational services; fifth (10-20s of the XXI century) - digitalization of the educational services.

The beginning of the first stage - institutionalization of the educational services (10-30s of the XX century), can be considered opening in 1901 of the first specialized school for gifted children in Worcester, Mass., USA, to which were accepted GT children of the 7-9 grades from all over the region. As O. Quinlan rightly points out, this event not only marked the beginning of the official recognition of the intellectual giftedness among the population, but also the need to provide special educational services for this category of students [16].

Further development the idea of providing educational services to gifted students in the United States received in the 20s of the XX century with creation of the first special classes for gifted children in Los Angeles and Cincinnati (1916), Urbana, Illinois (1919), Manhattan and Cleveland (1922) [20].

In Canada, according to E. Smith, the first province that introduced in 1914 legal regulations on the creation of special classes for GT children and providing this category of special educational services was Ontario [19]. The first institution that created separate classes for gifted students was Empress Avenue Public School (London, Ontario). This event became an example for other Canadian school boards. Subsequently, in 1932, special classes were created for gifted in Oshawa, Ontario (Center Street School) and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. In Saskatoon to the specialized classes were selected children of 4-5 grades from all over the city, whose IQ scores were 125 and higher, and to schools in London and Oshawa - with IQ scores 135-185 [8, p. 12].

In this context, it should be noted that in the United Kingdom, unlike the United States and Canada, at the beginning of the XX century the school system itself was elitist. Secondary education was provided in grammar schools and public schools. Because of high tuition fees in such education institutions, their students could be only representatives of the intellectual and social elite. At the same time, we'd like to emphasize that gifted children-representatives of socially unprotected layers of the population did not have the opportunity to study in such institutions. Consequently, we can conclude that, unlike the United States and Canada, IQ score was not the main criterion for providing educational services to gifted British students.

It is indisputable that in the 20-30s of the XX century in the USA, the development of education in general and GT in particular took place under the influence of progressive educational movement. American educational theorists and practitioners of this period recognized that it was obvious that in schools of that time such form of pedagogical support as acceleration allowed gifted students to learn more quickly, but at the expense of more superficial knowledge and poorly developed skills. Instead, arguments were put forward in favor of enrichment, which allowed meeting the needs of both gifted and ordinary students within the framework of a single program [21].

Just as in the United States, Canadian educators-representatives of the progressive movement advocated the development of special educational programs for gifted students. Canadian education historian T. Christou [4] called adaptation of the curriculum to the needs of the child the sign of that time, stating that a gifted child, because of his exclusivity, also needed special programs, as well as other exceptional students - with special educational needs or learning difficulties.

It should be stressed that in the 10-30s of the XX century the first studies of gifted children were conducted by American, Canadian and British researchers. In particular, decisive is the contribution of the American scientists L. Terman and L. Hollingworth to the development of the research on giftedness.

The contributions of the psychologist of Stanford University L. Terman to the development of scientific thought on the problems of giftedness and GT education in particular are multifaceted, among which the most significant aspects the researchers consider the modification of the A. Binet's IQ test and the large-scale study of the lifestyle and peculiarities of development of gifted students.

In 1921, L. Terman observed 1,500 gifted children (800 boys and 700 girls) who were selected according to the results of the IQ test of Stanford-Binet. The results of the study are reflected in the fundamental work of the author "Genetic Studies of Genius". This study was one of the most long-term; within it there had been accumulated a wide set of data on human development, the peculiarities of participants' life had been studied for decades: their life at home, their learning, their interests, their abilities and personal qualities [13, p. 16].

A significant contribution to the development of GT education was made by the American researcher L. Hollingworth, who was rightly called the "caring mother" of gifted children by the American education theorists G. Davis and S. Rimm [5], because, unlike L. Terman, who studied why the children were gifted, she focused her attention on how to meet their needs in her studies (italics is our - M.B.). L. Hollingworth directed her efforts to the development of GT education in general and pedagogical support of gifted students in New York City in particular. In the early 20s of the XX century the researcher created an experimental school in which she tested her own concept of child's giftedness. In this education institution, specially selected gifted children were taught and observed until they reached the age of 20. This was one of the first longitudinal studies in the field, which demonstrated that intellectual advantage was not a guarantee of high social achievements throughout life.

Thus, we can state that the first stage of the GT education development in the studied countries was marked by increased attention to the problems of gifted students and recognition of the need to provide them with special educational services, which was contributed by the studies of leading theorists on the problems of giftedness at that time.

Turning to consideration of the second stage of the gifted education development - diversification of the educational services (40-50s of the XX century), we'd like to note that if in the United States and Canada, during the first stage, there were isolated cases of provision of special educational services to gifted students within specialized schools or classes, and through acceleration and enrichment, then in the UK, according to E. Reid and H. Boettger the history of gifted education begins in 1944 with the adoption of the new Education Act also known as the Butler Act, which gave the opportunity for 20 % of the most able students (based on the results of the 11+ exam) to study in grammar schools within the tripartite system of education institutions [17, p. 158].

In the USA, on the contrary, the end of the 30s - the early 40s of the XX century was marked by a decline in interest in GT problems associated with the Great Depression, and later with the participation of the country in the World War II.

Agreeing with American historian of GT Education A. Tannenbaum, we would like to emphasize that after the World War II in the United States there was an alternation of movements for outstanding achievements and egalitarian movements. During this stage in the country there were two peaks of deepening interest in the field of gifted and talented education: the first (19571962) - the next five years after the launch of the Soviet satellite and the second (1970-1975). Accordingly, from 1962 to 1970, public attention was focused on disadvantaged, low-motivated, and socially disadvantaged students. Such fluctuations in national priorities, according to A. Tannenbaum, testified to the inability of the country to pay simultaneous attention to the most and the least successful students [20, p. 33]. Taking into account the fact that the second peak named by the researcher is within the framework of the third stage of development of GT education, we consider it expedient to focus on the events that took place after the launch of the Soviet satellite.

It is indisputable, that the launch of the Soviet satellite shook the confidence of the US government in the world leadership, because, as A. Tannenbaum remarks, this event has become not only a demoralizing technological threat, but a potential military one. Suddenly, the prestige and security of the nation were endangered by the fact that the best minds of the adversary countries demonstrated their primacy in achievements" [20, p. 33].

The reaction of Canadian educational politicy-makers to the launch of the Soviet satellite was less dramatic. The Chief Inspector of Ottawa Public Schools, V. T. McSkimming stressed that the reactions were diverse... Among them - the demand to take radical measures to overcome the "crisis in education" ... He also emphasized that they did not have a crisis. Schools had been preparing for years for world contest with the Soviet Union [15, p. 11-13].

Consequently, in spite of the different, often opposing views of educational policy-makers on the state and competitiveness of educational systems of the countries under study, one can state the indisputable thing: increasing interest in education of gifted children and youth as a national elite capable of raising the level of competitiveness of the state. In this regard, the system of providing education services to gifted students, particularly in the United States, has been severely criticized.

One of the proofs of rethinking the role of education in the United States was the adoption in 1958 of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA), which provided for the development of new curricula for basic disciplines, improvement of the teaching methods and intensification of research work in the field of education. It should be noted that although the efforts of American educational policy-makers were not aimed directly at gifted students, school curriculum and educational practice coincided with their educational needs [9].

Despite the increased federal attention to the development of US GT education, only a few states have developed appropriate legislation. By 1947, only California, Oregon, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin had adopted laws enabling creation of special classes for GT students and their funding. In 1952, Kansas became the only state to introduce gifted children in the regulations to the category of "exceptional", requiring special educational services. In October 1957, the Government of California passed a Law on Provision of Teaching Support to Gifted Students, however, programs for GT students did not receive funding until 1961, the time when the California Education Code came into force, sections 6421-6434 dealt with special educational programs for intellectually gifted students [18]. Thus, at the end of the 1950s only six US states had developed legislation that regulated provision of the educational services for students in specialized classes.

In addition to the above mentioned states, special educational services were provided to New Jersey, Massachusetts, Ohio, and Maryland students during the research stage. However, according to a nationwide survey, by 1948, among 3,000 cities with a population of 2,500 or more, only 15 cities had special schools or classes for GT students, the largest of which was in such cities as New York, Cleveland, Worcester and Los Angeles [11].

In Canada, compared with the previous stage, the number of schools offering special classes for GT students had increased significantly. By 1953, in addition to London and Saskatoon, such classes were opened in Kingston and Sudbury. The Council of the Protestant School of Montreal introduced special classes in 1942 [7]. In 1956, in addition to the enrichment program, two specialized classes for gifted students - 5 and 8, with an intelligence ratio of 140 and above were opened in the public schools of Ottawa. Toronto also opened two classes for gifted at Howard Park Public School and Hodgson Public School.

It should be noted that in addition to specialized schools and classes, enrichment and acceleration, in the United States and Canada, during the second stage, the range of educational services for gifted students had expanded at the expense of special out-of-school programs, especially summer schools, camps and training courses of various duration, and advanced placement.

Unlike the United States and Canada, where at the national/regional levels the need of expanding the range of special educational services for GT students was recognized, in the UK during the 40s and 50s of the XX century the selective system of education, which envisaged provision of the special educational services to gifted students in grammar schools, was strongly criticized. As C. Benn and C. Chitty rightly pointed out, "the number of the middle class had increased, and grammar schools had not" [2, p. 8].

The beginning of the third stage - mass character of the educational services (60-70s of the XX century) - was marked by a new peak of attention to the problems of gifted students in the United States and Canada, in the UK, like at the end of the previous stage, attention to the gifted was regarded as oppression of the rights of the ordinary students.

The main form of pedagogical support of gifted students in the USA and Canada in the early 60s of the XX century became enrichment. Also, this period was marked by a series of studies on the nature of giftedness and GT education. The main directions of research at this stage were: the effectiveness of various forms of pedagogical support of GT students - ability grouping, enrichment, acceleration; the social status of gifted schoolchildren in an education institution and its impact on their motivation to study; the causes and ways of overcoming the academic failure of high-potential students; motivation of educational achievements and other non-intellectual factors of giftedness development; psychological correlates of divergent thinking processes, etc.

In the UK, as noted above, movements for social justice during the 1960s did not stop. In their 1964 election manifesto, Labor announced that they would "get rid of the segregation of children in separate schools by the results of the selection 11+: secondary education would be reorganized on a generalized basis" [10]. Despite the loud speeches, the victory of the Labor Party in the 1966 election campaign did not help the latter completely reorganize the system of secondary education on a general level, although some progress still took place - the exam 11+ was canceled, as well as the division into flows of abilities.

The next wave of interest in GT education in the studied countries began at the beginning of the 1970s caused by the aggravation of economic situation.

In particular, in the UK, such interest was reflected in a number of government Black Papers: Fight for Education (1969), The Crisis in Education (1969), Goodbye Mr. Short (1970), Fight for Education (1975), Black Paper (1977), which sharply criticized the comprehensive character of education, egalitarianism and teaching methods existing at that time. They also highlighted low level of discipline in schools and lack of appropriate conditions for academically gifted students to achieve high academic results [10].

In the USA increasing interest in GT education was manifested in introducing of Provisions Related to Gifted and Talented Children to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The law provided for the inclusion of gifted students in the list of categories that receive assistance from the state. In addition, the head of the education commission was responsible for:

1) determining the amount of special education and teaching support programs which are necessary or useful to meet the needs of gifted students;

2) verification of the effectiveness of federal programs to support gifted students;

3) determining the prospects for more effective use of public funds within the federal support programs to meet the needs of gifted students; 4) search for new programs that can better meet the needs of gifted students.

An increase in the interest in gifted and talented education was observed during this period in Canada, where a significant number of education institutions introduced new programs and special educational services for gifted students. At that time in the country the movement in support of GT education had intensified, in particular through the creation of professional GT organizations that united different interest groups. student education canadian

For example, in 1972, the Association for Bright Children (ABC) was established in Ontario. ABC's parent community played a key role in providing gifted students with support from the provincial government [14]. In 1979, the Alberta Association of Bright Children (AABC) was founded.

So, we can state that during the third stage, the integration of the efforts of various stakeholders in providing educational services and pedagogical support to GT schoolchildren, first of all parents, teachers and faculty of higher education institutions, through uniting into professional educational networks.

Turning to the consideration of the fourth stage - modernization of the educational services (80-90s of the XX century), we'd like to note that, according to the cyclical nature of educational reforms, next crisis of dissatisfaction with the state of education broke out. The most striking manifestation it received in the United States, where in 1983 the government of the country published the report "Nation at Risk" in order to attract public attention to a number of problems: threats of the country's loss of the position of the world leader, the growth of global competition in the conditions of poor education, reflected in the low educational achievements of students, the need to reform all spheres of human life for the preservation of personal freedom, etc. [12].

By identifying risk indicators (low results of academic achievements of American students in Math and Sciences compared to students from other countries, functional illiteracy of an adult population and student youth, etc.), the authors of the Report focused on the fact that "educational achievements of more than half of the gifted students do not correspond to the abilities, defined in the process of identification" [1].

Consequently, publication of the Report marked the beginning of a new cycle of educational reforms, which included a number of changes in the content and structure of the educational system, within which there were also changes in the process of providing educational services to students. In particular, the traditional tactics of defining gifted students had undergone significant changes. Despite endless discussions of researchers on the validity of IQ tests for the identification of gifted children and youth, their use had become even more widespread, however, along with these tests, the tests for identifying specific talents in students who showed extremely high levels of mastery and creativity were used for the first time.

As it has been noted above, GT education in the USA and Canada was governed at the national (federal) (USA) and regional (USA, Canada) levels. During the 1980s and 1990s, states/provinces continued to improve GT legislation; some developed relevant legislation for the first time. Instead, in the UK education of GT students by the end of the XX century remained the prerogative of LEAs.

The first national initiative was introduced by the conservative government of the UK in the 80s of the XX century; however, it was aimed at providing financial support to 10-15 % of the most able students of any social status for visiting private independent schools within the "Assisted Places Scheme" (APS) program.

In 1997, Labor government, led by T. Blair, cancelled the APS program under the pressure of parent community, which emphasized that the needs of gifted and talented students remained dissatisfied. Instead, the government proposed to incorporate gifted and talented needs into school curriculum through raising educational standards in deprived public schools in large cities within the framework of the Excellence in Cities program (1999).

In the following years, the national strategy for the development of GT education in the UK was specified in the state document "Schools Achieving Success" (2001), the main provisions of which were: 1) supporting the most gifted and talented children and youth in the country as a whole and in each school in particular, including deprived areas; 2) provision of educational services, taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of each student, provision of each student with an adequate level of education; 3) combining school activities with additional extracurricular activities; 4) providing students with more opportunities to achieve progress that is appropriate to their abilities, not age, and, if possible, achievement of skills instead of superficial mastering of all subjects; 5) combination of increased speed, depth or breadth in the provision of educational services in different proportions, taking into account the abilities and needs of students, in particular the opportunity to study externally [6].

It is noteworthy that in the UK, only this stage was marked by due attention to GT students from the national government as a separate category of students, rather than one of the constituents of the category "students with special educational needs", which was reflected in a number of normative acts. However, unfortunately, such interest did not last long, and after the policy change, all the above mentioned initiatives were stopped.

Next wave of reforms in the USA, Canada and the UK in the field of education in general, and also including GT, marked the beginning of the fifth stage - digitization of educational services (10-20s of the XXI century).

In the United States, just as during the previous stages, after the events of September 11, 2001, rhetoric about the ability of American citizens, including young people, to increase physical security, taking into account the threats of the modern world and to be competitive in the global economy, has intensified. It should be noted that the increasing interest of society in the quality of education, in particular, the quality of educational services from schoolchildren as a future national elite, has been associated with the threats to national security and the reduction of competitiveness on the global labor market.

The main trend in GT education in the USA, Canada and the UK at modern stage is implementation of ICT in the process of learning, pedagogical support and teachers' professional development. In particular, in recent years more and more popular in the developed English-speaking countries becomes mentoring with the help of ICT, particularly the Internet. This form of mentoring has received a number of names - "telementoring", "virtual mentoring", "e-mentoring", "iMentoring" and so forth [3].

In general, the use of ICT in GT education facilitates personalization of learning, allows better understanding of the potential of each student, and provides educational opportunities for gifted students with different social status, rural schoolchildren, and students with special educational needs. According to the researchers, the main advantages of using ICT in the educational process over traditional training include: wide access to a large number of educational resources; constant access to information through the use of mobile phones, tablets, e-books, etc.; online learning without limits; opportunity to work in different groups; better visualization of educational material through the use of the latest audiovisual techniques, etc.

The fifth stage of GT education development in the USA, Canada and the UK was also marked by a significant increase in the interest and investments in STEM-education by a wide range of stakeholders: government, charitable organizations, affiliates, industry and research community. Various organizations are focusing their efforts on attracting young people to the STEM industry by offering a wide range of educational proposals that encompass numerous programs for enriching curriculum with the STEM component in schools and colleges, opportunities for professional development of teachers and the development of teaching resources.

Conclusions

Conducted analysis of the peculiarities of GT education development in the USA, Canada and the UK during the outlined stages

1) institutionalization of the educational services (10-30s of the XX century);

2) diversification of the educational services (40-50s of the XX century);

3) mass character of the educational services (60-70s of the ХХ century);

4) modernization of the educational services (80-90s of the XX century);

5) digitalization of the educational services (10-20s of the XXI century)) led us to the conclusion about the cyclical character of interest in GT education from the national/regional governments and educational policy-makers. Reforms in the sphere of GT education at all the stages were driven by the economic (economic crisis, competitiveness at the world labor market) and political (national defense, world leadership) factors. Taking into account the fact that modern stage of GT education development deserves special attention, content-procedural foundations of this process should be studied more detailed, at which further research in this direction will be aimed.

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