Education in Poland

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У статті розглянуто сучасні вимоги та виклики, що визначають роль і місце освіти в сучасному суспільстві. Зокрема, висвітлено ґенезу існуючих відомих освітніх закладів, виокремлено три типи системи сучасних вишів Європи (традиційні ліберальні; гнучкі з підлаштуванням до вимог ринку; більш доступні з точки зору плати за навчання, але менш престижні вищі професійні школи). Нового імпульсу активізації запровадження сучасних світових освітніх стандартів у європейські виші надало ухвалення Болонської декларації 1998 р. та пізніші акти керівних органів ЄС.

Надано характеристику сучасного стану галузі вищої освіти у Польщі: законодавче регулювання (активні процеси розпочато після реформи 1989 р.); порядок створення закладів та їх фінансування; організаційно-інституційна складова адміністрування галуззю (міністерства, комісії, ради ректорів та ін.). Звернуто увагу на особливості внутрішнього управління та організаційної структури польських вишів.

За співвідношенням студентів щодо кількості населення Польща є на сьогодні одним із світових лідерів: починаючи з 1995 р. протягом 15-и років кількість студентів у Польщі зростала щороку вп'ятеро.

Освітою в галузі безпеки в Польщі займаються Міністерство національної оборони та Міністерство внутрішніх справ щодо секторів міжнародної, національної та внутрішньої безпеки. Спеціалізація включає підготовку в таких галузях, як суспільні науки, менеджмент та інженерні професії. Післядипломна освіта включає такі рівні, як аспірантура і докторантура.

Визначено проблеми сучасної освітньої галузі в Польщі: джерела фінансування, автономія вишів, подальше існування приватних закладів, визнання польських дипломів у решті країн ЄС, наявність контролюючих та атестаційних органів тощо.

Ключові слова: освіта, безпека, Польща, Європейський Союз, заклад вищої освіти, система освіти.

The article deals with modern requirements and challenges that determine the role and place of education in modern society. In particular, the genesis of existing well-known educational institutions is highlighted, three types of systems of modern European higher education have been outlined, organizational characteristics of education in the security sector have been exposed. A new impetus for the revitalization of the introduction of modern world educational standards into the European higher education institutions was the adoption of the Bologna Declaration of 1998 and subsequent acts of the governing bodies of the EU. education poland bologna declaration

The author has identified the problems of modern education in Poland are: sources of financing, autonomy of higher education, further existence of private institutions, recognition of Polish diplomas in other EU countries, lack of controlling and certifying authorities etc.

Keywords: education, security, Poland, European Union, higher education institution, education system.

Introduce

Civilizational change facilitates the evolution of societies based on knowledge, at the same time creating a demand for highly-skilled individuals and a need for general education. A society transforming into a knowledge-based society means that this change would also affect the job market. There is a rising and more noticeable demand for specialized workers, individuals who possess the modern technology know-how, a command of foreign languages, functional flexibility in its broadest sense, the ability to solve unconventional problems, as well as being innovative, having the drive to expand one's knowledge and being able to apply that knowledge at work, possessing experience and constantly improving their qualifications, being a team-player, also in an international sense. Such a demand is specifically required in services based on knowledge rather than craftsmanship and technologically advanced sectors of

industry, thus changing the needs of the whole job market and employment structure. These conditions induced a transition from elite academic education to mass academic education, which has been noticeable throughout the last few decades.

Modern-day societies, for a variety of reasons, require specialists from the field of security. A regular need for such specialists has been provided by armed forces and law enforcement or rescue agencies. Currently a great number of other agencies and state institutions, as well as the private sector, security companies and economic espionage agencies need skilled specialists in that particular field. Among modern-day societies there are thousands of job opportunities requiring a substantial background in the field of security. This social demand creates new fields and specializations of studies as well as professional training in the field of security, thereby causing further development of security studies.

Hige education security specialists is carried primarily in universities, the shape of which has changed over the centuries

The genesis of the modern-day higher education institutions dates back to the ancient times. Educational institutions at that time in Greece (Plato's Academy - 387 BC - 529), in the Middle East (The University of Al Quaraouiyine in Fes, from 859, Al-Azhar University in Cairo from 988), India (Nalanda University between 500-1193) and China (Shang-Xiang, Taixue and Guozijian Schools) [1] - became the predecessors of modern-day universities. The universities in Europe experienced their heyday in the Middle Ages (schools in Bologna, Paris and Oxford). In the beginnings these were formed as independent discussion forums based on educational facilities, they focused primarily on philosophy, medicine and theology. The youth would gather there around the leading scholars of law, medicine and around clergymen, all financed by their rulers. They were the starting point for the universities in Paris (Paris University, later Sorbonne University from 1100), Oxford (Oxford University from 1167), Prague (Charles University in Prague from 1348), Cracow (Jagiellonian University from 1364), Torun (Academic Gymnasium in Torun founded in 1568), Vilnius (Vilnius University from 1579), Kiev (Universitas Kioviensis Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv from 1833) - open to accept pupils from all social strata. There were also convent schools, predominantly for the clergy.

Universities were associated with prestige and required a permission from the Pope and the secular ruler to function, with the latter additionally granting them their relevant rights and privileges to ensure their autonomy and financial independence.

Medieval universities resembled ancient schools where students (pupils) gathered around their master scholars, possessing exceptional expertise in a particular field of study, who were surrounded by a small circle of disciples. A master scholar would shape his pupils' mindset and views according to his own as well as pass on his knowledge to them. There was no timeframe of to the duration of the classes. It was the master scholar who ultimately decided whether a pupil has developed the desired set of competences which would qualify him to become a graduate of a given school.

The second model of higher education institutions relied upon centers which attracted substantial numbers of master scholars and teachers, specializing in a particular domain, who were qualified to teach one specific subject. Graduating was possible after completing all subjects from the curriculum.

Both pupils and university professors formed a separate social group of those who teach and those who learn, i.e. academicians.

In both models Latin was the standard language of instruction, which promoted the exchange of teachers and students between universities [2, p. 70-71].

The organizational backbone of the first universities and teaching methods in that period was similar in all European countries. The differences, if any, resulted from the subjects taught. Studying was comprised of comprehensive reading, understanding, interpreting and justifying the content of the materials containing the knowledge of the time. Lectures were the basic method of teaching, where the lecturer would summarize the content of a specific portion of academic material, explain the material to the students and prompt a discussion. The discussion would often unfold to become a search for arguments for and against the thesis formulated by the teacher beforehand. The role of the teacher was to engage the students in a polemic through indicating their lack of logical integrity, inconsistency or fallacy of their arguments.

Since the 17th century two major types of lectures have been developed, a traditional one where the teacher would present the knowledge, often overburdening the student with its abundance of content - and the second one, where he would present the method of gaining specific knowledge as well as the obstacles one might come across in the process and the material yet to be learned.

During the 18th century it became more and more common for universities to adopt a practical model of teaching, thus preparing the students for specific professions, teaching them good-manners, fencing and dancing.

In the 19th century Europe there were three types of universities present: English, French and German. The English model was characterized by having independent colleges, where students received general education (classic studies and savoir-vivre). The foundation of this academic life was monastery-like discipline. These colleges placed a lot of emphasis on all aspects of cooperation, rivalry and teaching in an atmosphere of camaraderie, with sport playing the crucial role to serve as a way of maintaining discipline. There seemed to be a preference for college athletics which required both cooperation and loyalty, such as rowing and soccer.

In the British model one could notice the first characteristics of a modern management of academic society by appointing alumni boards which had the deciding vote in matters such as curriculums and methods of teaching as well as the selection of their teaching staff. One of the disadvantages of the abovementioned system was the separation of teaching from research, which had a marginal role compared to the didactic process.

The French model, created by Napoleon, preferred to abandon the idea of traditional universities and establish one specialized faculty (law, medicine, humanistic or exact sciences) in every city which had a provincial government. The purpose of these faculties was to provide state institutions with experts. The teachers in this model had the status of state officials.

In Germany an intermediate model has been developed, inspired by the German tradition. The University of Berlin was run by the state, with its own self-government, and appointable rector and senate. In this model, research work was highly prioritized, as well as pragmatic and professional aspects and merging research with didactics. New didactic forms were introduced including tutorials, laboratories and seminars, at the expense of decreasing the number of lectures.

These higher education institution models had their share in shaping the modern version of a higher educational facility, where students receive vocational training apart from general education.

The characteristic feature of the 20th century higher educational facilities was the fact that the studies were available for the masses, predominantly in more affluent and more developed countries [2, 141-150]. At present, the enrollment rate for higher education in almost all countries of the world has increased fourfold during the last fifty years .

From the second half of the 20th century the prevalent idea was to make higher education widely available. Since that very moment the education market has been characterized by fierce competition between rivalling schools. Numerous higher vocational schools established at that time were expected to prepare for many professions, predominantly technical, whereas traditional universities were responsible for improving the qualifications of academic teachers and research workers essentially in domains related to humanities. Universities were considered too egalitarian to be able to quickly prepare the middle technical staff to perform their job [3, p. 20-30]. Nonetheless, long cycle studies lasting 4 to 6 years did not offer the flexibility and mobility to students or teachers either. Long cycle studies were then substituted by 1st degree and 2nd degree studies, even 3rd degree studies (France). Such a solution was supposed to provide financial savings and create the possibility of graduating faster, in a shorter time, usually in 3 to 4 years. It also prevented students from leaving the university without a degree if they decided to drop out after 2-3 years.

Currently higher educational institutions in Europe can be divided into three major types. The first type is comprised by liberal universities with traditions dating back hundreds of years. This group includes prestigious German and British universities, as well as some Polish ones with centuries-old traditions, namely the Jagiellonian University (established in 1364), the University in Wroclaw (established in 1702), or the University in Warsaw (established 1816). They all embrace the traditional functions of creating, recording and spreading knowledge, predominantly in the field of humanities and social sciences. All of the above have huge

The enrollment rate in countries listed as poor, moderately wealthy and wealthy in 1965 was respectively 1%, 5% and 12% and reached 5%, 21% and 40%, respectively, in 1995. capacity for students, they are open for the public, offering numerous subjects of study (humanistic, social, medical) and course types (full-time, extramural, distance learning). Their functioning is independent from regional demand in terms of research, education or professional training. This demand is provided for by establishing informal arrangements, less often through agreements between universities and their regional satellite campuses.

The second type are universities which dynamically adapt their offer to current market needs. They were founded in the 1960s and 1970s in Germany, France and other countries, and in the 1990s also in Great Britain, Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, Hungary and many other countries - in most cases by merging several smaller higher educational institutions, creating prominent academic and scientific hubs. These modern universities are commonly considered more flexible and adaptive to the requirements of economy in terms of education and applied research. This group is characterized by modern methods of management and a commercial approach to academic teaching.

The third group is comprised of higher vocational schools which constitute a new quality among societies, but have been considered less prestigious for quite some time. Their main advantage is that they generate lower maintenance cost since they are focused primarily on didactics, which is their main statutory task. Higher vocational schools seem to be fulfilling their purpose adequately by increasing the enrollment rate in all countries in which they have been established.

The distinguishing feature of present-day higher education institution is that they have become hubs which grant access to knowledge apart from being just a place where people study. The teacher ceases to be just an overseeing master, transforming into an academic or didactic worker eventually, the student is no longer the master's disciple - the student only absorbs knowledge (which often ends at acquiring a trade) in a higher educational institution, the library is becoming a place which rents books instead of being just a place to study. The widespread access to the Internet, the evolving computer technology and the IT sector have obviated the need to possess a certain set of skills, e.g. calligraphy, accounting, spelling, part of mathematics, drafting etc. The evolution of information technology used by the student and highly-developed didactic equipment at both the teacher's and the student's disposal, such as digital teaching aids, computerization, laboratories, the Internet, etc., have all significantly influenced the ways of acquiring knowledge and skill therefore changing the image of modern higher education institutions.

Since the beginnings of universities, they shared the privilege of the freedom of teaching which has been renowned across Europe for centuries. The relations among the secular authorities, formerly also ecclesiastical, were based upon a silent agreement according to which the main role of universities was to build knowledge and pass it on exclusively to those who were deemed worthy by the authorities, in exchange for resources required to achieve that. As a matter of fact, the abovementioned agreement survived up until the second half of the 19th century, which is when scientific discoveries intensified and their outcome started to provide significant benefits for the society. Schools started to serve as a means of transporting the knowledge into social practice which caused higher education institutions to become gradually involved in fulfilling the pragmatic role of a social benefactor, which also facilitated their expansion. Studies gained massive interest in the second half of the 20th century when universities started to integrate with their surroundings. It was manifested by establishing study courses for which there was a high social demand, adapting the curriculums to the needs of the job market, decreasing the duration of studies, which lowered the costs and urged higher schools to acquire extra-budgetary funds to finance their operations.

Higher education institutions with centuries-old traditions retain their prestige by maintaining structural and curricular distinctiveness up to the present day. In these institutions, curriculums are formed largely by auto-adjustment mechanisms of the academic society, the internal system of values and the adaptability of the people in this environment rather than external pressure, educational policy of the state or certain requirements on the market.

Making studies available for the masses was possible because of the development of many higher vocational schools, where education was cheaper by default, adapted to the needs of the job market. There seems to be a tendency, however, for higher vocational schools to diverge from their original tasks in favour of university ones [3, p. 51-52].

The impulse to meet the world's strictest higher education standards in Europe is their integration, standardization and openness which has been observed for over twenty years. The process was initiated in 1998 when the Sorbonne Declaration was signed by the majority of

European countries' ministers, consequently followed by other acts in the following years (The Bologna Declaration in 1999, the Prague Communiquй in 2001, Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council in 2008 on European Qualifications Framework).

Higher education system in Poland

People's proclivity for pursuing knowledge has proved profitable in the past and it is still visible in the public demand for education matching civilizational progress. The result of this demand was the creation of educational institutions and the forming of the teacher and student environment.

The birth of the information society has caused a substantial rise in the number of people who decided to study worldwide - in 1970 there were 28.5 million students, in 2005 the number rose to 140 million, and currently there are almost 200 million people who attend higher education institutions. On a global scale, the average annual rise of the number of students during the last 50 years was approx. 5%; however, it was highly diversified depending on the region. The rise was noticeable in the developing countries, but also in Central European and Eastern European countries. Whereas the relatively low growth rate of the number of students was recorded in highly developed countries.

As a result of political transformation in Poland higher education institutions found themselves in a different situation in 1989, which could be attributed to a complicated state of the country's economy, demographical processes, continually changing legal regulations in all sectors, including the changes made to the system of higher education funding, a dynamic growth of private schooling and the society's aspirations.

The requirements of the job market are a significant factor which may spur the decision to go to university, as well as the financial condition of prospective students (possibilities and financial benefits expected upon graduation) and the social prestige acquired after graduating from a university. The demand for various professions is changing rapidly, and it is predicted that in the near future there will be a higher demand for managers in huge companies, graduates specializing in exact sciences and engineering, with a much smaller rise in demand for graduates of pedagogical fields of study. The employment rate of office clerks will decline, whereas the demand for service assistants and sales assistants will remain high, the demand for workers in farming, fishing, industry and crafts will drop. A significant factor motivating people to go to university is the fact that a lot of Polish legal regulations require you to possess higher education in certain professions or when applying for a specific position.

Quite an important social phenomenon worldwide, which is particularly noticeable in Poland, is the aging of society. It is presumed that by 2020 the population in Poland will shrink by 226 thousand, and in 2030 by another million, 35693 thousand altogether. It will have a direct effect on the number of students. The number of youth aged 19-24 has dropped by 553.7 thousand during 2010-2015 and the estimates show that between 2015-2020 another 500 thousand will disappear, and still more than 400 thousand is estimated to vanish between 20202030 [4]. The conclusive data shows that by 2020 the number of people aged 19-24 (the usual age to go to university) will decrease by more than 1 million (i.e. by approx. 36%), and the decreasing number of the youngest people (aged 17 or younger) after 2035 will be reflected by a further dropping number of people of university age. That, in effect, will have a detrimental influence on the number of students in Poland which already dropped from 2.1 million in 2005 to 1.6 million in 2015, 1.3 million in 2020 and 1.1 million in 2025. During 2005-2020 as a result of extremely unfavorable demographic changes (while other factors remained unchanged) the number of students in Poland is predicted to drop by as much as approximately 45%.

Students in Poland are becoming more aware of their own aspirations and capabilities. They are focused on acquiring proper knowledge and skills, unlike in the past when they would only be interested in the degree alone which served as proof of graduation. Furthermore, their decisions related to choosing the type and profile of studies are to a larger extent based upon the analysis of the current situation and the presumed changes on the job market.

In Poland, since the beginning of the political system change, alongside public high schools (state-run) there were non-public (private) high schools. Private schools compete with state schools especially when it comes to educating more and more students; in 1996/97 almost 16% of students attended non-public schools, but currently more than 30% of the total number of students attend more than three hundred private schools.

The aging of society does not leave the age structure of research and academic workers untarnished. It mainly results from the commonly adopted recruitment policy in Polish higher education institutions which is, to a large extent, based upon the students per teacher ratio, along with the employment guarantee for these individuals, which is also common practice in most countries.

After 1989, rules regulating the distribution of budget subsidies among universities were changed. The cost formula was replaced with a formula which prioritizes the number of attending students. During the first years after the political transformation the real overall expenditure on education dropped significantly, which caused the subsidy for each recruited student to become smaller by approximately 60% in 1990-1997. The decrease of budget expenditure was not compensated by any income from other sources. The study costs in Poland are relatively low compared to Western European countries. For public schools it is about 11000 PLN per year, including 7364 PLN a year per university. For non-public schools the cost is equal to about 5500 PLN [5, p. 244].

According to the Polish development strategy [6], the amount of actual funding of higher education coming from the state budget is increasing, nevertheless its actual rise fails to keep up with the gradual rise of the Polish GDP. Yet, the assessment made recently indicates that we should not expect the state to further increase budget expenditure beyond the current level, taking into consideration the possibility of generating additional income from other sources, which currently increase the expenditure on higher education to more than 1,0% of GDP.

The aging of society may seriously obstruct financing of higher education both from public sources (the dominant formula in Poland is to grant funds depending on the number of students) and private sources alike (lower demand, the result of increasing taxes in order to keep the public funding rate unchanged). The majority of demographers and economists indicate that the aging society decreases the dynamics of GDP in the long run. The demographic changes in Poland are expected to cause the relation between GDP and the total expenditure on higher education as well as the public expenditure's contribution to higher education funding in overall public expenditure to decrease significantly. It is estimated that the total expenditure on higher education in Poland will drop from 1,6% of GDP in 2005 to 1,1% of GDP in 2020 and finally to 0,9% in 2025 [7].

Polish higher education system became part of the globalization process to a very limited extent. Poland is one of the European countries who have the fewest foreign students in relation to the total number of people who study and in the 2005/2006 academic year the rate was 0.52%, and consequently it went up to reach 1.65% in 2011/2012. The number of foreign students in Poland rose from 10 092 in 2005/2006 to 21 474 in 2010/11, then to 24 252 in 2011/12 and in 2012/13 there were 29 172 foreigners studying in Poland [8, p. 25; 9, p. 363]. A solid increase in worldwide demand for higher education services in the world may prove to be a chance to modify and develop Polish higher education, providing that appropriate action is taken to fully exploit this chance.

Legislative changes in post-1989 Poland affected all aspects of the higher education system which concerned three areas: the improvement of the whole higher education system and schools; commercialization of educational services; the cooperation between the university and its surrounding environment.

The current basis of the higher education system in Poland is Art. 70 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland which gives every citizen the constitutional right to education, tuition-free public schools, the right to establish private schools, and obliges state authorities to provide citizens with common and equal access to education, the right to create systems of individual aid and finally, grants autonomy to higher education institutions.

The management system of higher education until 2018 was based upon two major acts: Act of 27 July 2005: Law on Higher Education and Law on Academic Degrees and Title and Degrees and Title in the Arts. The current laws have been in effect since 2018 (Law on Higher Education and Science). These regulations have had a major effect on the Polish higher education system. Studies have been divided into 1^st and 2^nd degree studies, thus replacing vocational studies and university-profiled studies, both operating independently from one another for a long time, with the latter providing general education. The elite character of doctoral studies, being part of a system which helps to achieve the desired academic qualifications, has disappeared in favor of a more commercial approach, which made them available to the masses by relaunching doctoral studies as a separate 3^rd degree studies governed by appropriate regulations pertaining to the legal aspect and the curriculum. After being amended multiple times, these acts now include references to executive regulations and university statues which regulate their functioning. The Polish legal system gives the higher education system extensive autonomy from the state, both institutional autonomy as well as the substantial independence of the basic organizational units of universities (i.e. departments). The law guarantees that high schools have the freedom of expressing their ideas and scientific views. At the same time, a new resolution was introduced which would make academies and universities compete in order to acquire budget funding for their research, it would also create rivalry between employees by using competitive selection procedures.

According to the Polish law, establishing a public school requires an act (academic schools) or an ordinance of the Council of Ministers (higher vocational schools).

The statutory changes from 2005 introduced a relatively rigid register containing programmes of study (there were 118) which could be offered to students by the Polish higher education system, regardless of the school type or the authority the school is subordinate to. The proper quality of teaching was to be ensured by the newly implemented teaching standards for each programme of study, containing minimum curricula which had to be achieved by every school which teaches a given subject. Standards of the quality of education are ensured by the Polish Accreditation Committee, specially authorized to perform this task, which is responsible for the assessment of applications presented to the appropriate minister in charge of higher education whenever a university is to be established. Furthermore, the Committee has served an important function, which is to assess the courses currently taught along with the institutions offering them. Additionally, supra-academic institutions have been formed such as The Conference of Rectors of Academic Schools in Poland and The Conference of Rectors of Public Vocational Schools.

The amendments made to the act - law on higher education in 2011 replaced the teaching standards system (representing minimum curricula) with a set of required qualifications which the graduate must acquire, regardless of the higher education institution he or she has graduated from, in the form of The National Qualifications Framework.

There are more than 90 acts directly and indirectly regulating higher education in Poland, as well as 200 ordinances and 100 other legal acts, with more than 300 legal acts on academic research. The current Act on Higher Education and Science contains 470 articles on more than 120 pages. It is one of the most voluminous acts on higher education in the European Union.

Even though the autonomy of higher education institutions is guaranteed by the Constitution, acts and ordinances based on these acts significantly suppress this autonomy in terms of merit, but also in terms of organization, financing and economy.

After 1989 the educational revolution in Poland affected higher education significantly. The solutions promoted by the previous political system favored elementary schools and postelementary schools, prioritizing vocational schools above all, in the public education system. The enrollment rate for higher education back then was so low that Poland ranked quite poorly in this respect compared to other European countries. The current enrollment rate for Poland places it among other well developed Western European countries. What made it possible was the rapid growth of private schooling. The growing popularity of private schools contributed extensively to the creation of educational institutions outside of traditional academic hubs.

Changes were applied to profiles, degree programmes and learning programmes apart from legislative and structural changes which took place in higher education. The main curricular issue was the need to determine the proportions between the general education and specialized education. On one hand, the market expects the graduate to be ready to perform certain specialized tasks; on the other hand, it also needs specialists who possess general knowledge and are able to flexibly accustom themselves to the evolving conditions of the work environment, fitting into a specific organizational culture, with a prevailing habit of self-improvement.

Another significant change was the introduction of external assessment and control over the functioning of academic institutions, the introduction of European standards of acknowledging the student's achievements in school, and the implementation of learning programmes, which made it possible to graduate from two different universities in two different countries

The gross enrollment rate is the ratio between the number of people who study at a given education level (regardless of age) and the total number of people in the age group suitable for that education level. The net enrollment rate is the ratio between the number of people who study at a given education level (within a specific age group) and the total number of people in the age group suitable for that education level.

simultaneously.

After 1989, higher education in Poland was affected by changes in terms of the system, organization, financing and content-wise; however, these changes did not spark any social tensions. The Polish education system is currently comprised of three tiers: elementary (a 6-yearelementary school is compulsory), post-elementary (a compulsory 3-year gymnasium and a non-compulsory 3-year general secondary school which ends with a maturity exam allowing the student to apply to a university) and higher education.

As soon as the political system changed in Poland in 1989, the first private schools started to appear. In the 2001/2002 academic year there were 241 private schools compared with 123 public schools. In 2013 the total number of schools was 454, where 142 were public and 312 were private. Caused by the shrinking number of students and tuition fees, the number of private schools has been falling since 2010, simply because students prefer to study in tuition-free public schools.

Up to 2005, Poland had a rigid number of 128 degree programs not connected to particular fields of knowledge. Each university, meeting the requirements of each degree programme, was able to teach these courses upon the approval of the appropriate minister. Since 2005 the rigid register of degree programmes was liberalized and currently each university has the right to create a degree programme, providing they inform the appropriate ministry (universities who have the right to grant post-doctoral degrees and the title of professor) or acquire a permission from the appropriate ministry (the remaining universities). At present, there are more than 400 degree programmes in Poland.

All universities (public and private alike) are subject to the same legal regulations and, to a limited extent, they are supervised by the Minister of Science and Higher Education, with the exception of ministerial academic schools (translator's note: such as police or military academies for uniformed personnel) which are supervised by appropriate ministers (they take over the supervisory function of the Minister of Science and Higher Education over ministerial academic schools) .

The Minister of Science and Higher Education serves as the supervising authority of universities and academies by passing ordinances to regulate the institutional, financial and organizational rules of a particular university, therefore influencing its internal order by approving names for new degree courses, rules for conducting these courses, the number and profile of the faculty members who accredit these courses, the rules of establishing new satellite campuses and extension offices of the university, forms of studies and trainings which are allowed to accept foreign students and the requirements they have to meet in order to be eligible to enroll.

The external institutions which enforce academic standards also include supra-academic institutions which may have direct influence on higher education institutions and the higher education system as a whole; they are, among others: The General Council of Science and Higher Education, Council of Scientific Exellence, Scientific Evaluation Committee, The Polish Accreditation Committee and rectors' conferences.

The General Council of Science and Higher Education is a representative body of the academic society. It serves as expert advisory authority for the minister, e.g. by expressing its opinion on drafts of normative acts related to higher education, it may also propose changes which should be applied to ordinances related to education, however, the decision whether to apply these changes or not ultimately belongs to the minister. The role of the Council is quite limited and there have been multiple doubts as to the actual purpose of its existence.

Council of Scientific Exellence is subordinate to Minister of Science and Higher Education and serves as a government administrative body. It gives universities the right to grant doctoral and post-doctoral degrees. It also participates in post-doctoral and professorial programs by appointing appropriate committees and thesis reviewers, assesses drafts of normative acts related to granting academic degrees and titles. Furthermore, it is entitled to review cases

In Poland, the following ministers are responsible for their respective higher education institutions:

> Science and Higher Education, excluding all ministerial universities and academies;

> Health (medical academies);

> Culture and National Heritage (visual and performing arts schools);

> Infrastructure (civilian maritime universities);

> Internal Affairs and Administration (fire service and police academies);

> National Defense (military academies).

where applicants do not meet the required criteria when applying for a university position. The members of the Council of Scientific Exellence are elected by persons who already possess an academic title. The rigid and centrally formalized, to a large extent, Polish system of granting academic degrees and titles is a peculiar one. Unquestionably, in the majority of countries degrees are granted by universities with no involvement of state organs, and the institution of academic titles is absent. There is no professor title per se, one can only be employed as a university professor.

The Polish Accreditation Committee is a statutory body of higher education serving to ensure the quality of education. The Committee members are nominated by the Minister of Science and Higher Education from among the candidates appointed by the universities. The Committee submits its opinions and conclusions to the president, especially on issues related to: establishing a university, granting a university the right to conduct degree courses in a specific field and the accompanying standards of teaching, establishing a remote branch office by a university, assessing the quality of teaching of a given degree course, assessing the teachers' quality of teaching, meeting the legal criteria of conducting degree courses, assigning specialization in education, conducted in higher vocational schools, to specific degree courses.

The Conference of Rectors of Academic Schools in Poland and The Conference of Rectors of Polish Vocational Schools both possess the status of an association. The authority which supervises the rectors' conferences is the Minister. Public authorities seek the opinion of the rectors' conferences in matters related to the rules of functioning and directions of higher education development as well as drafts of legal acts regarding higher education, science and culture. The conferences have the right to present their own proposals to the Minister.

The organisation of higher education institutions

During the last 25 years, every type of higher education institution has undergone a major transformation. The Act on Higher Education from 1990 brought about substantial changes in that it enabled non-public (private) universities to be established and tuition fees to be collected for certain education services, which made it possible to develop extra-mural and post-graduate studies scheme in public schools. On the basis of prerogatives and rights (in terms of competences, financing, organization) within the Polish higher education system the following institutions have been introduced: universities, academies, and higher vocational schools .

The internal academic order within a university or academy is as follows: board universities, the rector, the senate, administrative staff. Depending on university model, i.e. the hierarchy concept, all management tasks such as: determining strategical directions of development, acquiring material resources for development, supervising finances, staff development, etc. may be outsourced or carried out by organs within the school itself. However, management tasks such as outlining plans of achieving strategic goals, staff policy, organizing research and didactics, making new local contacts, and administrative management are carried out within the school.

Unquestionably, the internal order of the Polish academies and universities - according to the Polish legislation in force - is characterized by self-government which nevertheless remains limited by multiple legal regulations. This self-government feature concerns various management tasks of the school and stems from the fact that a considerable amount of decision-making competences is handed down to representative organs of employees and students which have a varying share in the decision-making process. It is required by the law that each university establishes many collegiate bodies and a system of electing university authorities by representative organs (an electoral college) or through competitive selection. The right to academic freedom causes some academic teachers (especially professors) to enjoy independence from university authorities.

Electable senate represent the academic society, which makes them local government authorities. Those authorities pass internal laws, they either take managerial decisions or at least assess them (including staff related ones), they supervise rectors who at the same time preside over them.

Board universities may include representatives of state authorities, local authority organs and professional self-governments, scientific, trade and creative associations and institutions, associations of employers, business self-government, as well as local businessmen

This distinction results from the total number of rights a higher education institution has to grant the academic degree of doctor.

and financial institutions. Usually an board universities would be responsible for giving opinions on the direction in which a university is heading, giving opinions on research activities, suggesting new degree courses and specialisations, promoting the university and it involvement in community partnerships. Only higher vocational schools have the requirement of electing the assembly. The assembly's recommendations are not legally binding for university authorities, which is why a substantial amount of the recommendations may happen to be purely pretentious.

The university senate, as a representative of all employee groups and students of a university, possesses significant legislative, consultative and supervisory powers. It also possesses a statutory prerogative to make statutes of a higher education institution, to regulate its financial operation, it also possesses huge consultative competences.

The rector is the supreme one-man organ of the university, serving as the head of the self-government (the senate) at the same time. The relatively powerful collegiate bodies (the senate) may obstruct the swift operation of all one-man organs (the rector), being the only instrument of supervision over their activities.

Unlike public schools, non-public ones are free to work out their own management system, authorities, supervisory boards, employment policies and wages. Usually the internal order of such universities is as described below:

^ a legal person or a foundation is often the founder of the university;

^ a legal person or the senate can appoint and dismiss the rector as a one-man authority, it also establishes the statutes which are passed on to the Minister of Science and Higher Education for approval;

^ the rector hires staff on individual employment contracts;

^ the senate possess only advisory and consultative powers, legislative powers only within their capacity to grant academic degrees.

Significant differences between public and non-public higher education institutions may be identified in terms of their transformation, where non-public institutions are subordinate to the Minister, whereas public institutions are subordinate to The National Assembly or the appropriate overseeing Minister. Another noticeable difference between these two types of higher education institutions is the way in which the rector, the pro-rector, deans and pro-deans are appointed. In the case of a public higher education institution they are appointed by an electoral college (an indirect electoral self-government organ). Because of the nature of their powers, they are unable to enforce any political platforms, unlike any founder of a non-public higher education institution who enjoys such powers.

The higher education institutions in Poland are allowed to organize their internal structure according to their needs. Larger institutions (mainly universities and public academies) are divided into, so called, basic organizational units (most often these would be departments) which focus on a specific branch of knowledge, offering specific degree programmes and conducting research they are most interested in. They possess complete substantive autonomy, some decision-making powers and often financial autonomy as well. They are further subdivided into institutes, sub-faculties, units and problem groups. They are supported by nondepartmental units which teach subjects beyond the borders of the departments' competences.

A university is led by an elective (or chosen through competitive selection) rector and pro-rectors; analogically, a department is led by an elective dean along with pro-deans. The most crucial decisions for the university (such as development strategies, statutes, study regulations, establishing new degree programmes, finances) are made by an elective senate, the constitution of which is strictly regulated by a legal act.

Poland has a traditional organization scheme of students, each student is assigned to a department, a year, a group, and depending on the situation groups can be divided further into lab groups, project groups, etc.

The structure of higher education in Poland

In 1989 in Poland there were 1,101 students per 100,000 inhabitants (compared to 2,700 students in Great Britain, 2,995 in France and 1,927 in Greece). In 2002 the number went up to as many as 4,000, in 2012 - 4,580, which placed Poland among the world leaders in this respect.

Starting from 1990, over the period of fifteen years the number of students increased by five times. For full-time studies, the number was almost a million in 2011/2012, which accounted for more than half of the total number of students. The number of students in public facilities was twice and a half as big as in private ones. This trend can be illustrated using the enrolment ratio. In the academic year 1990/1991 the net ratio did not exceed 10% while in 2012 it went up to over 40%. The figure reached the peak point in 2005/2006.

As seen from the data above, the enrolment ratio for higher education has more than quadrupled over the past 25 years. T aking into account the highly developed countries, however, Polish post-secondary education is still at a lower level. To give an example, 88% of young Canadians complete secondary education, 81% of Americans, 80% of Australians, 63% of New Zealanders and 62% of Norwegians. Still, these figures are not fully comparable because of short, two-year or even one-year studies being very common in these countries.

The number of students in Poland was on the rise till the mid first decade of the 21st c. Due to the drop in the birth rate, the number started going down, which is forecast to continue until 2021-2026. The drop in the population number as a result of the demographic decline among people aged 19-24 will cause the number of students to decrease in the mid third decade of the 21st c. by more than a third compared to 2005.

Owing to a considerable increase in the number of students in the 1990s, the Polish higher education experienced a growing problem of the shortage of academic staff with the highest qualifications, i.e. professors and associate professors. The student number which was several times as big as before was not accompanied by a proportional increase in the number of academic teachers. The increase reached only 24%, which means that at the beginning there were 6 students per one teacher, 20 students in the late 1990s, and 17 students at present.