Motivating adult learners in online and distant foreign language learning

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FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

FOR HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

School of Foreign Languages

Bachelor's thesis

Motivating adult learners in online and distant foreign language learning

Valeriya Gutorova

Moscow, 2020

Table of contents

Introduction

Chapter 1. Theoretical studies of the features of online and distant learning

1.1 Specific features of online and distant learning of foreign languages

Chapter 2. Psychological and pedagogical foundations of teaching adults foreign languages

2.1 Psychological and pedagogical features of adult language learning

Chapter 3. Theoretical analysis of the motivation of adults during learning foreign languages

3.1 Motivation as a psychological category

3.2 Types of motivation

3.3 Specific features of adults' motivation in the process of study a foreign language

3.4 Techniques for increasing students' motivation for learning a foreign language online and distantly

4. Chapter: Practical Implementation

4.1 Methods

4.2 Results and discussion

Conclusion

References

Appendix

Introduction

In the modern world knowledge of a foreign language has become a mandatory competency. English is regarded to be one of the most important factors to reach a high academic, economic and social status (Fandino, Munoz & Juliette, 2019). Besides, it has become difficult to imagine even everyday life without the knowledge of the English language. In this regard more and more people do not stop their language learning at the school level but continue learning it at universities, language courses including online and distant ones. Moreover, online and distant learning is of high demand in the modern society and appears to be a trend in education. However, the success of the foreign language learning depends not only on a chosen place, course or not even abilities but also on a person's motivation to learn it (Mantiri, 2015; Santana et al., 2016; Stoen & Haugan, 2016). Motivation plays a tremendous role in foreign language learning especially in online education while it requires a high level of autonomy (Fandino, Munoz & Juliette, 2019). Meanwhile, age related features affect motivation that is why they need to be taken into account. Undoubtedly, adult learners possess different motives, needs, abilities, lifestyle and experience in comparison to other age groups.

The relevance of studying adult motivation in distance and online learning is due to their active implementation in the higher education and supplementary education systems in Russia and the possibilities of their use to implement the concept of lifelong learning. Although the aspect of motivation has already been widely discussed in pedagogical and psychological fields, little is still known about the principles of motivation in the online format.

The general purpose of my research is to determine specific features of adults' motivation and types of their motivation in online and distant language learning and, therefore, to contribute to the field of foreign language teaching.

In order to achieve the purpose of this work the following objectives were set:

To reveal the specific features of online and distant learning, relying on the analysis of scientific pedagogical literature.

To conduct an analysis of psychological and pedagogical features of an adult audience in language learning.

To define motivation and its role in foreign language learning.

To identify types of motivation in learning foreign languages.

To display specific features of adults' motivation.

To study the ways of enhancing students' motivation in online and distant language learning.

To devise a questionnaire and conduct a survey concerning adults' motivation in online and distant learning.

Based on the results of the survey, draw a conclusion and make recommendations for effective motivation of adult student in online and distant format.

To accomplish these tasks, we used such research methods as: analysis of literature; an opinion poll based questionnaire with a 5 point Likert scale, its analysis and interpretation.

The theoretical significance of this work lies in the study of online and distant learning features, specific characteristics of adult learning and theoretical analysis of the motivational problem.

The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that the results of the study can be used in online and distant education in order to make a foreign language course more effective.

The structure of the study includes an introduction, four chapters, six paragraphs, the conclusion, sources.

Chapter 1. Theoretical studies of the features of online and distant learning

1.1 Specific features of online and distant learning of foreign languages

Technologies have opened a great variety of new possibilities for learning, which have their own distinctive features, merits and drawbacks. Among modern pedagogical technologies and educational innovations, online education is considered to be a powerful trend, which accounts for 1.1% of the total education market only in Russia (Badarch, 2013). Online education is in demand in our modern society, and it is actively promoted by educational organizations and is an object of interest of the great number of methodologists.

The history of distance education started in the nineteenth century (Patterson, 1996; Cannell, 1999). The elaboration of distance learning was connected to the creation of print-based correspondence courses. These courses made possible the exchange of information between learner and instructor without physical attendance by using print (Ascough, 2002). New opportunities emerged with the creation of telecommunication media. In the early twentieth century, oral radio courses became popular. Then with the development of television appeared visual broadcasts. After that, audio lectures with printed materials emerged. Currently, the further improvement of communication media has broadened the opportunities. For instance, it is possible now two have two-way simultaneous interaction (Ascough, 2002). Computers and internet provide a new platform for education. Some teachers use it as a supplement to conventional education; others replace traditional learning by online courses.

The most popular types of online education now are distance and online learning. However, in modern scientific and pedagogical resources, the definitions of “distance” and “online” are used as synonyms and are believed to be interchangeable in the definition and description of online education (Andreev, 2002). That is the reason why we need to clarify what exactly each type focuses on, what are the misleading similarities and differences and also issues of such learning directions. First of all, I would like to speculate on the similarities of online and distant learning in order to make it more vivid why these types of learning are so often misinterpreted. There are many overlaps between distant and online learning. The first and the most transparent one is the fact that the process of acquiring new knowledge is happening without actual attendance and personal contact with a teacher. The other similarity is the availability of learning while such things as time or location do not matter in online education. In any case students can watch videos from class later even if they missed it. Secondly, I will provide the definitions of the two types. Online learning is understood as “the organization of educational activities using the information contained in the databases and used in the implementation of educational programs and the information processing technology, technical means, as well as information and telecommunication networks that provide the transmission of the specified information through communication lines, the interaction of students and teachers” (Andreev, 2002). Distant educational technologies are understood as “technologies implemented mainly with the use of information and telecommunication networks with indirect interaction between students and teachers” (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). From the aforesaid, we can deduct the main differences between online and distant learning. It is clear that during distant learning students receive tasks and materials via distant means of communication. Thus, the students interact with their tutor only while submitting assignments for marking. They communicate with teachers predominantly with written messages and e-mails (Ascough, 2002). It is crucial to mention that they commonly do not interact with their fellow students either. Meanwhile, online learning is connected more with interaction. Students watch lectures, they are encouraged to attend online classes and lectures, they are also provided with an opportunity to discuss assignments and difficulties in group chats and forums.

Though computer-based learning is flexible, as it does not depend on such variables as time and place, it also requires from students to develop self-regulated learning skills (SRL) due to the level of autonomy inherent in online and distance learning (Kim, 2012; Kirmizi, 2015; Rowe & Rafferty, 2013).

Before discussing SRL let us define the difference between learner autonomy and self-regulated skills. In language learning autonomy is presented as the ability to take control over learning (Holec, 1981). Though many scholars equate autonomy and self-regulation, the autonomy includes “control over a wider range of phenomena than self-regulation” (Kormos & Csizer, 2009). Autonomy encompasses responsibility for the content and learning management, whereas self-regulation focuses on control over cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioral aspects (Benson, 2001; Oxford, 2003).

Both online and distance learning tend to provide students with a limited level of interaction, input and output, that is why the obtaining of language is hardly possible, if students do not possess good self-management skills and do not take responsibility for their learning (Blin, 2004; GroЯ & Wolff, 2001). A variety of strategies to regulate SRL have been suggested by scholars. Kuhl in his work described six strategies, with a help of which students can get control over their cognition (1985). However, Dцrney (2005) put forward a new self-regulation theory, which took its roots from the Kuhl's strategies.

The study carried out by Tseng, Dцrney, and Schmitt points out five types of strategies (2006). The first one is commitment control that focuses on the maintenance of goal's commitment. The next one is metacognitive control, which works on students' concentration. The following one is situation control, which helps to alleviate problems during education. The fourth one is emotion control that regulates emotions. The last one is environment control, which is used to manage study environment. At this level it can appear challenging for adults with a number of responsibilities, such as career and family. SRL is not the only obstacle that might inhibit distance and online learning. Students also need to invest money in obtaining high quality technology devices and stable internet connection. For many people of the middle-class these additional costs are a considerable investment. Moreover, such learning requires enhanced computer skills and their constant development, which is especially challenging for elder generation of adults (Ascough, 2002).

Nevertheless, there is the number of significant upsides of online and distant learning that have to be taken into consideration. The most transparent one is convenience. Students don't have to commute and everyone can study in their own pace. Furthermore, the nature of students' participation is higher. In traditional learning generally only several students dominate during discussions in the classroom, which makes it difficult to assess the knowledge of other introverted students present because they are more silent and require more time to come up with a response (Ascough, 2002). However, all students in online and distant learning must contribute to the discussions in order to show their presence. That is why the participation becomes more equal. In addition, online and distance learning diminish discrimination and prejudice due to race, gender, religion or physical appearance (Palloff & Pratt, 1999).

Online and distance learning have their own advantages and disadvantages, as any other type of learning. With regard to technological progress and the change of people's lifestyle the positives outweigh the negatives. In order to keep up with the development of the modern world, it is important to study online education and contribute to its further improvement.

Chapter 2. Psychological and pedagogical foundations of teaching adults foreign languages

2.1 Psychological and pedagogical features of adult language learning

Hardly ever educational psychology focuses on adult students. Nevertheless, the trend of adults learning foreign languages is getting more and more popular. There are many reasons for this starting from constant self-development, carrier promotions and ending with world globalization. Due to the high demand the interest in knowledge of specifics of adult education in all angles has also increased.

Adults are considered to be all people above age of eighteen. But when we look at the concept of an adult in learning, we notice that they are not defined by the age, rather than by the number of responsibilities (Myers, Conte, & Rubenson, 2011).

Hardly ever educational psychology focuses on adult students. Nevertheless, the trend of adults learning foreign languages is getting more and more popular. There are many reasons for this starting from constant self-development, carrier promotions and ending with world globalization. Due to the high demand the interest in knowledge of specifics of adult education in all angles has also increased.

However, it is widely accepted that regarding language learning, younger is better. It is understandable, why people stick to this point of view. While little children are able to acquire several languages with a little effort, adult invest decades to reach native like level of a language. Furthermore, the idea that the output of learning a foreign language tend to decline is proved scientifically (Oyama, 1978; Hakuta, 2001; Shachter, 1996). The critical period hypothesis claims that the ability to learn a language has its end around adolescence (Lenneberg, 1967). Nevertheless, this hypothesis does not argue that the whole ability to learn languages disappears rather than the automatic unconscious way that children use diminishes (Lenneberg, 1967). In contrast to children's automatic learning, the performance of adults in language acquisition depends on motivation, time and analytical skills (DeKeyser, 2000).

Back then scholars already supposed that naturally the educational process of adult learners differs from other age groups. Knowledge of the history of adult education, its positive and negative features, biological specifics will help us to understand the process of adult language learning. Science of Andragogy, which was introduces by Knowles in 1968, studies adults learning processes as well as the specific features of management such a learning (Kolesnikova, 2003), will help us to puzzle out the following questions.

The first question is why we need to detach adults in a separate group? Earlier the apocryphal theory prevailed that adults' learning is basically the same as children's learning. For instance, Alan Rogers argued “that there is nothing distinctive undertaken by adults” (Rogers, 2002, p.7). Yet it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the separate discipline of andragogy not only due to the different biological capacities that were studied back in the twentieth century and are still of interest for researchers today, but also another social status and emotional state in adult education (Illieris K, 2010). If we compare a ten-year-old student with a 30-year-old one, it is obvious that their biological ability to learn is different. Moreover, they have completely different interests and motivation and lastly attitude to learning foreign languages.

Our next question is, what are the positive features of adult learning? Scholars observe a number of them. The first one is that such age-group of students is often strongly motivated due to internal type of motivation (Knowles, 1984) and therefore disciplined, which makes their learning highly productive. We will clarify this point in the following chapters concerned with motivation. Adults learners also tend to be problem-solving oriented while studying (Knowles, 1980, p.44-45). In addition, adults are more independent than, for example, young learners. However, the approaches containing the information that the following characteristics can be attributed exclusively to adult learners have been criticized. Norman (1999) indicates that such features as problem-orientation, independence can also develop during school learning or high education. In order to clarify we rely on the theoretical works above, however, we do not deny that these skills and characteristics cannot be obtained by younger learners.

Moreover, adults possess a great amount of personal, interpersonal and professional experience, which helps them to build stronger associations to new foreign words (Knowles, 1980). Kuhn and Pease (2006) explain that having much experience helps adult student to learn more rapidly, as their life experience is their resource for learning.

The next point is actually connected to the previous one, it is the fact that adult learners already have their own learning styles and study strategies that are effective for them (Rogers, 2007). At first we need to understand what learning styles and learning strategies are. By learning styles Gordon and Holyoak (1983) describe habitual mental functioning used to deal with new information. Scientists identify 3 types of traditions concerning learning styles (Shipman & Stephanie, 1985). The first one is perception and Gestalt psychology. The second one is ego psychology. The third one is theories of Carl Jung. The first tradition of perception and Gestalt is the most popular one and it deals with the ability to detach the important details from background (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). Douglas Brown (1987) state that such a learning style may have merits for analytical task, however, not in all aspects of communicative competence. The second ego dimension show adaptive and flexible cognitive styles, which have revealed divers results in foreign language learning (Holzman & Klein, 1954). Lastly, theories of Carl Jung emphasize that tolerance for ambiguity can increase language learning performance (Chapelle, 1995).

Going further to the strategies, they are seen as conscious measures that learners undertake in order to facilitate storage, recall and acquisition of new information (Rigney, 1978). Scholars claim that students of all language levels use those strategies (Rigney, 1978). It is important to highlight that learners who are more experienced at language learning obtain a wider range of strategies. Nevertheless, the correlation between different strategies and successful foreign language acquisition is complex (Skehan, 1989). We explored that it is important to use a number of strategies to improve language performance (Nyikos, 1987). A number of researches also propose that learning styles and learning strategies are close related to each other (Leaver, 1986; Parry, 1984).

Oxford's system of taxonomy (1990) suggests that there are two types of learning strategies: direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies include the usage of the language itself. Memory strategies for retrieving information, compensatory strategies for prevailing challenges and limitations in knowledge already existing and cognitive strategies that are used in order to improve the reception and production of meaning are called as direct ones. Meanwhile, indirect strategies do not necessarily include the usage of the language. These strategies might be metacognitive for organizing studies, affective with a help of which people manage their emotions and attitudes and social strategies that concern learning with other students. It is crucial to note that both types of strategies are equally significant (Oxford, 1990).

Going back to positive features, unfortunately, there are also several psychological characteristics that undermine the learning process. Many experts point out that as a rule, adults need to be persuaded that they can apply the class material in practical usage, therefore abstract notions do not work for them (Vitlin, 1976; Knowles, 1984). Moreover, adults are prone to skip material that they do not want to learn or do not see importance in. Consequently, they easily forget this material or hardly can reproduce in real life situations (Illeris, 2007). Furthermore, such students may have a negative attitude towards studying shaped by past learning experiences (Corder, 2002). These problems exist while most of the adults came across the dogmatic type of learning, which is based on the lecture format and gives students mainly theory, which is highly problematic to apply to real life situations (Mal'cev, 2016). Such experience diminishes motivation especially for adults with their aspiration to use their knowledge for their own purposes.

One more downside is one of the most frequent linguistic problems in adults education is called “fossilised errors”, “stabilized errors” (Schumann, 1978) or “cross-linguistic error” (Odlin, 1990). These linguistic problems might have many names but their content is always the same. Such errors appear in students' speech constantly and are stored by the influence of productive skills of the first language (L1) on the second language (L2) (Wei, 2007). According to Selinker, due to the long-term process of articulation mistakes such errors are expected to be highly difficult to get rid of (1972).

Summing up, the understanding of psychological features of adult learners is one of the most important keys to efficient teaching. Adult students obtain their unique characteristics that have to be taken into consideration. Adults differ from other age groups not only physiologically, but also psychologically. That is why the methods used for teaching children or school learners will not lead to great progress and sometimes might even cause its decline.

Chapter 3. Theoretical analysis of the motivation of adults during learning foreign languages

3.1 Motivation as a psychological category

Foreign language teachers are used to believing that their main task is to follow communicative purpose of study, to enhance problem-solving thinking, while not paying much attention to students' motivation and attitude towards foreign language learning. However, attitude and motivation are defining factors of language learning (Oroujlou & Vahedi, 2011). In pedagogy, motivation is one of the main components of the organization of educational activity and an important characteristic of the very subject of this activity (Zimnaya, 2000, p.197).

Motivation activates such psychological processes as our perception, thinking and assimilation. Scarce attention to attitude and motivation can influence adversely the whole process of learning L2. Based on this it is significant not only to follow the progress but also to maintain motivation of students.

We can trace the development of numerous theories of motivation starting with the works of ancient Greek philosophers. Views on the essence of human motivation throughout the entire study of this problem have repeatedly changed (Leontiev, 2002, p.78).

For the first time the word “motivation” was used by A. Schopenhauer in the article “Four principles of sufficient reason” in 1900-1910 (Regush, 2011). Then this term firmly entered everyday life to explain the causes of human behavior. Currently, the term “motivation” may be interpreted in different ways. This is due to the many approaches to understanding the essence of motivation. V. G. Aseev notes that the human motivational system is a wide sphere, the concept of “motivation” is associated with the concept of “significance”. In his opinion, this concept includes attitudes, aspirations, ideals, emotions, values (Aseev 1976, p.56). Meanwhile, A. Maslow in his model “Motivation and personality” interprets motive as a need. His structure of the need-motivational sphere includes a hierarchical five-level pyramid. Primary needs are physiological, then the need for security, for love and a sense of community, for respect from others and lastly in self-realization (Maslow, 1998, p.235). Nevertheless, researchers see a number of reasons that the need and motive should not be identified. For example, according to A.N. Leontiev, from the definition of motive subjective experiences (desires, wants, aspirations), stereotypes of behavior should be excluded, since they alone are not able to generate activity. Leontiev also distinguishes two functions of motive - motivation and sense formation, therefore, motives are divided into sense-building and motivating stimuli. Sense-forming motives induce and give meaning to activity. Incentive motives are called upon to fulfill the role of additional stimulating factors (Leontiev, 2002, p.78). Thus, Leontiev showed a mismatch of motives and goals in the event that the functions of motives are bifurcated. The difference between these functions between the motives of the same activity allows us to understand the main relationships that characterize the motivational sphere.

The motive is also considered as an incentive. H. Heckhausen, defining the motive, points to the “dynamic” moment of the direction of the action “on certain target states, which, regardless of their specificity, always contain a dynamic moment and which the subject seeks to achieve, whatever various means and ways neither led to this” (Hekhausen, 1986, p.136).

I. A. Zimnaya addresses the problem of determining motivation and draws attention to the fact that researchers consider motivation both as a specific motive, and as a system of motives, and as a specific sphere, so the concepts of “motivation”, “motive”, “motivational sphere” should be distinguished (Zimnaya, 2000, p.69).

Scientists understand the motive as a need, intention, condition. The concept of “motivation” “appears to be the complex mechanism by which a person correlates external and internal factors of behavior, which determines the occurrence, direction, and methods of implementing specific forms of activity” and is broader than the concept of “motive” (Jidaryan, 1974, p.231). We can say that motivation is a system of psychologically fragmented factors that determine human behavior and activity. The motivational sphere is the broadest concept, since it includes both the affective and volitional sphere of the personality (Vygotsky, 1982, p.207).

Returning to the question of determining motivation, according to Macmillan dictionary, motivation is 1. A feeling of enthusiasm or interest that makes you determined to do something. 2. A reason for doing something. These definitions exemplify that the terminology of the notion slightly differs and is rather abstract. Therefore, we will take specific type of motivation for learning a foreign language. The system that facilitates the learning of foreign languages due to aspiration is understood by the motivation here (Gardner, 1985).

Demotivation is explained as an opposite phenomenon. It is “external forces that reduce or diminish the motivation basis or behavior, intention or an ongoing action.” (Dцrnyei, 2001, p.143).

There is one more term that we need to distinguish from motivation. It is called attitude. Smith renders attitude as beliefs concerning a situation or an object, which influence one's perception of it (1971). It is crucial to mention that an attitude is not inherent, thus, can be changes and taught. Attitudes can be generalized while they are situational. A student may not like English because he or she does not like homework and the teachers. However, luckily, tutors and teachers can help students to obtain a more positive attitude towards learning.

Having analyzed the information above, it becomes clear that attitude is considered to be a set of beliefs while motivation is seen as a reason for an action.

3.2 Types of motivation

In general psychology, the types of motivation (motives) for behavior are divided “according to the nature of participation in the activity, the length of the conditioning activities, social significance, the fact of their inclusion in the activity itself or being outside it and a certain type of activity, whether it is educational or labor ” (Oroujlou & Vahedi, 2011).

The motives of educational activity are those factors due to which educational activity is manifested, that is, goals and needs are recognized, a sense of duty, interests appear. While studying psychological literature, we notice that different authors identify different types of motives for educational activities. For example, P. M. Jacobson (1969) identifies the following types of motives that are associated with learning outcomes. The first type is called cognitive motives, which are correlated with the process of education itself. The second type is positive motives, which focus on the success in an activity. For such a motivation the desire to succeed by any means, the search for the necessary conditions for the implementation of activities, waiting for approval, a clear commitment to achieving the goal are typical. The third type described is negative motives, which stem from the desire to avoid failure or punishment, fear of criticism and mistakes. (Jacobson, 1969, p.73)

According to Ryan and Deci's Determination theory motivation can be extrinsic, intrinsic and amotivative (2000). Intrinsic motivation - free participation in activities in the absence of external requirements or reinforcements (Deci & Ryan, 1980). An individual will try out a new activity, solve research problems, or seek to develop his environment simply for the sake of the experience that he receives. People with intrinsic motivation are satisfied by the process itself. People with extrinsic motivation, otherwise, participate in activity in perspective of getting some kind of a reward. Moreover, researchers distinguish the third type of motivation, which is amotivation. The amotivation regards the situations in which people simply do not have any motivation at all.

Ellis (1994) disagrees with the previous classification, claiming that the learning process can take place only if there is at least some type of motivation present. From his perspective we can define only motivation, which has a positive effect on learning and a negative effect, which inhibits learning.

Scholars also define integrative and instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation is the form of motive when a person is willing to adapt to another community and its culture (Benson, 1991). Foreign language is seen in integrative motivation as a necessary tool to exist in another community. In contrast to this type of motivation instrumental motivation focuses on utilitarian aims (Hudson, 2000). It could be a new job, a higher salary or applying for university.

The existence of many different classifications suggests that in psychology there is no single universally accepted classification of motives for an educational activity. But most of them are based on the allocation of external and internal motives. Consequently, we can divide all the motives for an educational activity into two large groups. The first group is related to the content of educational activities and its implementation process, these include the cognitive interests of students, the need for intellectual activity and the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and abilities. This group is defined as internal motives. The second group considers the relationship of students with the environment, namely their need for communication with other people, in the evaluation and approval of others, the desire to take a certain social role in social relations. This is external motivation. A distinctive feature is the absence or only slight desire to interact with target language speakers in the second type of motivation.

There are also different opinions concerning the question which type of motivation is more effective for language learners. For example, in the early works of D. Taylor, R. Maynard, R. Rowe, (Oroujlou & Vahedi, 2011) integrative (external) motivation was given particular importance, and it was considered more effective. Recently, however, scientists have also begun to emphasize the importance of instrumental (internal) motivation. It can be argued that the internal motivation of educational activities is more natural, thus, motivation leads to the best results. But we should not forget that the real educational process is to a greater extent driven by factors related to the group of external motives, for the achievement of which the educational process is a simple means. In addition, researchers note that most often students are guided by two types of motivation at the same time. We can claim that both types are important while the learning process is associated with a complex relationship with socially determined processes and conditions (Oroujlou & Vahedi, 2011). That is the reason why teachers should try to form and increase both types of motivation.

3.3 Specific features of adults' motivation in the process of study a foreign language

Scholars are convinced that motivation in foreign language learning is one of the key points of fast and progressive learning (Courtney, 1992; Wlodkowski, 2008). They clarify that students who understand how they will apply their knowledge of a foreign language in the future acquire fluency faster than even more talented students but with less motivation (Naiman et al., 1978; Oroujlou & Vahedi, 2011). Thus, it proves that motivation plays an immensely important role during studies and teachers should not underestimate it. It is extremely important to know which motivational factors adult students possess, as each adult student owns not only distinctive experience, learning style and abilities but also a distinctive motivation.

However, adult learning motivation has not been of much interest of psychologists and methodologists until recently. The question of adults' motivation currently started to appear in Russia (Kulytkin & Sukhobskaya, 1972; Yakobson, 1969) and in the USA and Great Britain (Maslow, 1998; Thorndike, 1925). As we found out there are two types of motivation: external and internal.

Adults organize their lives themselves, make decisions, and learning acts for them as a self-regulated activity, in which they participate voluntarily. Usually people consider change on the market, increasing job competition, qualification's upgrading as external incentives. Nevertheless, Kulyutkin and has a different opinion regarding external motivators. He attributes penalties and evaluation to external motivation. From Kulyutkin's point of view external motivators such as school grades, rewards and punishments start playing a supporting role in adult education. From now on internal motivation based on understanding of the significance of assimilated material is to be put in the first place. (Kulyutkin, 1971, p. 36). The same opinion is expressed by Knowles (1980). It means that adults tend to perceive learning as something they want to do rather than have to do.

According to Kulyutkin and Sukhobskaya intrinsic motivation in adults' education is diversified and can be divided into three main types: utilitarian motivation, prestige motivation and motivation in which knowledge is the aim itself (1972, p. 63-67). “Utilitarian motivation can be narrow, when it is driven only by the personal needs of the person, and broad, in which personal needs of a student are linked to social needs” (Kulytkin & Sukhobskaya, 1972).

In both narrow and broad utilitarian motivations, it is generated by the socio-professional practice of a person and the need for him to improve it. Motivation for prestige is also an incentive for an adult to be included in learning, because in this case a student gains satisfaction by distinguishing him or herself from the people around. Students with this type of internal motivation are eager to raise their social status and stand out from others. The third type, the acquisition of knowledge for the sake of knowledge is less common, but still occurs when people are passionate about some particular object of study. In any case, we are talking about “the inclusion of an adult in the process of accumulating personal capital in the form of education, and this personal capital acquires the greatest social significance in education “for something” - with broad utilitarian motivation, since it leads to a change in character and the quality of human activity in a broad sense” (Kulytkin & Sukhobskaya, 1972).

Especially in learning online adults' motivation is especially vulnerable due to multiple responsibilities, stress that impede successful learning at home. And while motivation has an influence on student's effort and persistence, regulation of learners' motivation should be used with regard to enhance and maintain students' performance (Wolters et al., 2005). It can be suggested to integrate a task, where students have to share their interests and expectations of learning a foreign language, in order to gain information about students' motivations.

3.4 Techniques for increasing students' motivation for learning a foreign language online and distantly

One of the most important ways to optimize the adult learning process is to manage the motivation of adult learners, based on the results of a scientific analysis of its features and patterns. Before discussing the techniques of the enhancement motivation, let us consider the background of developing foreign language teaching.

Many methods of teaching foreign languages have been devised to enhance the output of learning (Beghetto, 2010; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). For instance, American theorists developed the audiolingual way of teaching in the 1950s, which mainly involved memorization of dialogues (Coleman & Klapper, 2005). Audiolingualism reached the highest widespread in the 1960s. During this period of time students' listening, reading, writing and speaking skills were developed through the memorization of patterns and drill tasks (Savignon, 2002). In audiolingualism dialogues provide the means of language and illustrate situations, where these means can be used. After the memorization of a dialogue students focus and drill a selected grammatical pattern from this very dialogue (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). Nevertheless, this method was not successful enough concerning the interaction of such learners with native speakers due to the inability to use these memorized patterns in spontaneous speech (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). Students were unable to transfer obtained skills outside of the classroom. Moreover, there has been a change in linguistic theory.

From now on it was highlighted that the purpose of the knowing a foreign language is to process experience through a foreign language (Chomsky, 1966). Chomsky also put forward a theory that was different from the one proposed by behaviorists, who viewed the process of learning languages similar regards to any other learning. Behaviorist theory is based on the fact that learning foreign languages requires the same stimulus and response. However, Chomsky claimed that the same theory could not be applied for the process of learning languages, as a language is a generated anew behavior from the underlying rules rather than an imitating behavior. It led to the view that people need learning, which disposes conscious acknowledgment of language and encouragement of innate and creative skills (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). Thus, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), having its roots from functional theory, which concentrates on a language as a mean of communication, emerged (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). The main purpose of CLT is to teach students to express their thoughts using their own words rather than memorized dialogues. CLT focused on interaction and real life situations in order to develop a communicative competence (Hymes, 1972). Hymes (1972) highlighted that his term of communicative competence differs from the competence suggested by Chomsky. In contrast to Chomsky, who saw the linguistic competence as abstract abilities of a speaker to build grammatically correct sentences during communication, Hymes emphasized the incorporation of language and culture in communicative competence. In other words, a successful foreign language communicator is a person, who can detect formal and informal style, can estimate if something is appropriate in particular situation and other degrees of speech. But most importantly, with the development of CLT the role of the teacher has also changed. A teacher is no longer seen as an instructor. The prevalent goal of teachers is now to help their students to promote their learning and, therefore, achieve higher results.

The opinion was stated that with an eye to enhance learners' acquisition of foreign languages, the teachers should use creative methods to increase their motivation to participate in the learning process (National Advisory Committee on Creative & Cultural Education, 1999). Besides CLT many other attempts to create creative teaching methods has been taken. We can consider task-based and cooperative learning as examples.

A number of other studies, which presented ways to enhance and maintain students' motivation, have also been carried out. For instance, such scholars as Dornyei and Csizer proposed 10 commandments relying on the responses of teachers to the questionnaire of the most efficient strategies for increasing students' motivation (1998). Meanwhile, Williams and Burden introduces 10 suggestions for enhances students' stimuli (1997). Dornyei put forward an idea that these concepts can be divided into four groups (2001). According to his work the first group mainly focuses on the environment in the classroom. It includes teacher and student relationship, supportive and comfortable atmosphere. In the classroom it is important for students to be safe and feel their belonging to the group. The second group concerns the motivation of students by devising a relevant curriculum that fits the goals of students and creating realistic expectations of students. The next group deals with establishing learners' nearest sub goals, helping students to enhance and to maintain self-confidence in the classroom and developing their autonomy. Nasser Oroujlou and Dr. Majid Vahedi (2011) also highlight that each student should know their own goals and needs, which will help them to maintain motivation, as they know exactly why they need to learn this language. Moreover, teachers should help students to achieve their goals and respect their choice. The fourth group involves promoting positive attitude of students to themselves. By this is meant that teachers should praise the effort of students rather than their talent and abilities. It may be by providing encouraging feedbacks. Nasser Oroujlou and Dr. Majid Vahedi (2011) support this view. They note that it is a great way to motivate students by giving them a sense of accomplishment and boosting self-evaluation. Students are significantly affected by their success; therefore it will contribute to the shaping of positive attitude toward language learning. In addition, it is important also to show learners their mistakes and suggest ways for improvement. However, those corrections and comments should be explained and reasoned, as students respect and listen to teachers' commentary when they know that their work has been appreciated. In addition, Davies, Paul and Rinvolucri (1990) suggest that it is crucial to maintain students' self-confidence and develop their belief in their success. It can be done through confidence-building tasks that are aimed at remaining students' uncertainties.

Moreover, Damen (1987) points out that sociocultural component also have to be present at the lessons. Teachers can include modern music, TV shows and podcasts in order to raise the awareness about the culture of the language students are learning. The next point is correlated with the previous one. It might be effective to facilitate students' communication with native speakers by organizing exchange programs, trips (Robinson, 1988).

However, the creativity generally concerned the teachers, their ability to devise creative activities rather than forcing students to do something creative (Liaoa, Chena, Chenb & Changa, 2018).

But recently researchers argued that creativity can substantially facilitate the engagement of students in the learning process and boost their motivation (Avila, 2015; Kaufman, 2016). Furthermore, the usage of creative learning in the curricula is a widespread subject in the educational field of study (Craft, 2011; Cremin, 2015). That is why we will study creative pedagogy as a way to enhance students' motivation. At first, it is crucial to mention the definition of creative pedagogy. It is a way of foreign languages teaching, which develops learners' creativity and, hence, increases their language performance in the classroom. Yu-Hsiu Liaoa, Yi-Ling Chena, Hsueh-Chih Chenb and Yu-Lin Changa (2018) Let us analyse the influence of creative pedagogy on foreign language acquisition in a more detailed way.

Creative thinking is considered to be extremely helpful, as it contains the ability to provide ingenious ideas and solutions (Lubart & Guignard, 2004; Russ & Fiorelli, 2010). In order to obtain creativity learners have to be taught its comprising skills (Runco, 2004). One of these prevalent skills is called divergent thinking (Russ, 2003). Guilford (1967) tends to believe that learners with divergent thinking are able to drive a wider range of solutions to a problem. One of the techniques used to develop divergent thinking skill presented by Osborn (1942) is brainstorming. Such a technique contributes to the exchange of the flow of solutions to the problems without any criticism (Haarmann, O'Rourke, & Ragusa, 2012). In addition, teachers can use this method to make their students focused on the process of foreign languages' acquisition. Therefore, they will develop their creative thinking as well as language skills (Maghsoudi & Haririan, 2013). Yu-Hsiu Liaoa, Yi-Ling Chena, Hsueh-Chih Chenb and Yu-Lin Changa (2018) propose that the possible application of creative pedagogy in a foreign language classroom consist of three branches, which are meaningful learning, dual-code theory and playfulness. Let us take a closer look at each of the branches.

Considering meaningful learning it promotes a better integration of the information students already obtained and new knowledge (Mayer, 2002). Russ and Fiorelli explain that meaningful learning takes its place when students use their creative skills in order to convert the unknown information into known (2010). We can suppose that meaningful learning enhances language performance, while Kuo and Hooper found that students who come up with their own mnemonics achieve higher results in English learning than students who use translating and visuals (2004). Additionally, it is more personal and entertaining to build your own associations rather than to learn translations or definitions written by others. This fact can also contribute to the enhancement of motivation. Thus, it is highly recommended for English or any other foreign language teachers to encourage students to be creative and, therefore, to participate in meaningful learning.

Furthermore, we will consider the dual-code theory, which claims that human cognition has verbal and nonverbal stimuli and responses (Paivio, 2014). With regard to this theory, language learning task, including writing, speaking, listening, reading and also such creative tasks as singing and painting, focus on helping students to remember information and recall it when needed. Paivio and Desrochers clarify that creative activities such as word-association, the keywording, the usage of illustrations influence positively connections between verbal and nonverbal mental images (1980). Several scholars stated that dual-coding may benefit foreign language learning, especially while learning lexis (Lee, 2017; Porter, 2016; Sadoski, 2006).

Last but not least, the branch which is called playfulness is seemingly the most significant in the scope of our research, as it fosters motivation of learners to participate in activities and sparks their interest for language learning and it also promotes possibility thinking skill (Cremin et al., 2006, p.108). Additionally, most plays require pairs or groups collaboration, which provides supportive environment and, therefore, enhances their motivation to study (Marashi & Khatami, 2017).

Summing up, creative pedagogy can not only facilitate students' motivation but also support the whole foreign language learning process. A number of researchers find a correlation between creativity and language (Albert & Kormos, 2011; Guilford 1967). For instance, creativity gives people the ability to connect two different elements, just as people connect different particles of language into speech. Nostratinia, Saveiy and Zaker argue that creativity may be perceived as a metacognitive factor that gradually has its effect on the acquisition of foreign languages (2014). Moreover, the research in the foreign language teaching field of study proposed that successful foreign or second language acquisition depends on such variables as learning environment and creativity plus motivation (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Regarding all the finding above, we can affirm that the integration of creative pedagogy in the target language curricula may influence students' foreign language learning motivation and, consequently, their performance favorably. Nevertheless, it is significant to use the four categories of techniques mentioned above, as they also have their fundamental positive influence on learners' motivation. None of a creative task would be effective, if students felt uncomfortable and uncertain. distance learning teaching language