Active methods of teaching English in numerous groups of students

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Active methods of teaching English in numerous groups of students



Content

Introduction

Literature review

Chapter 1: Numerous groups of students

Definition of large class

1.2 Problems of Teaching in Large classes

1.3 Strategies of teaching in large classes

1.4 Cooperative Learning in Large Classes

Key findings to the Chapter 1

Chapter 2: Active learning strategies in teaching numerous groups of students

2.1 Why use cooperative learning in large classes

2.2 Research Method

2.3 Data Collection Procedures and analysis

2.4 Preliminary conclusion

2.5 Limitations of the study

Conclusion

Literature



Introduction

This study focuses on the problems of teaching English in numerous groups of students. In recent years, these problems have become urgent in connection with the processes of modernization of modern education, the transition to a variable system, and the strengthening of the autonomy of educational institutions.

In order to teach students English, a certain methodology of teaching English is needed, which would make it possible to solve the tasks as fully as possible, namely: to acquire reading, understanding listening, speaking and writing in the language being studied.

Even 20-30 years ago, the basis of training was the classical methodology. 90% of the time was devoted to the theory of English. In the lessons, students studied new vocabulary, syntactic constructions, discussed the rules, and also read and translated texts, did written assignments, and sometimes listened to audio recordings. It took only 10% of the time to develop conversational skills. As a result, a person understood texts in English and knew grammar rules, but could not speak. That is why it was decided to change the approach to learning.

However, encouraged language learners become more involved in managing their own learning in an appealing notion for several reasons. One of the reasons is that learning is more effective when students are active in the learning process, assuming responsibility for their learning and participating in the decisions that affect it.

The relevance of the research topic, due to the need to study the possibilities of optimizing training in English classes in groups of students.

The object of research is the process of teaching English in numerous groups of students through communicative approach and cooperative learning.

The subject of the study is the development of active methods of teaching English to students in numerous groups.

The main objective of the research is to conduct experimental study to ascertain the impact of large classes on the learning performance/ outcomes, and to suggest appropriate communicative strategies and scientifically based methods that can be utilized in numerous groups of students in order to facilitate effective English language teaching and learning.

In accordance with the goal, the following research hypothesis was formulated:

Teaching English to students in numerous groups will be more effective if it is carried out:

1) on the basis of training material selected and organized taking into account the principles of differentiation, taking into account interlanguage and intralingual interference, authenticity, variability of tasks;

2) based on a set of exercises, including exercises for independent work aimed at correcting students' speech skills, exercises in teaching communication and exercises in mastering educational skills.

To achieve this goal and test the hypothesis, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

- Consider ways of implementing active teaching methods in the English class;

- To define the term «large classes» and its impact on the language learning;

- To analyze the specifics of teaching English in the numerous groups of students;

- To define communicative approach and its main features;

- To define cooperative learning and its features;

- To describe the main features of communication and collaboration skills;

- To develop a set of active methods (exercises);

- Experimentally verify the effectiveness of the developed set of exercises.

The tasks were carried out using the following research methods: theoretical analysis of the methodological and pedagogical literature on the research topic; analysis of curricula and teaching aids; monitoring the progress of the educational process; questionnaires of students and teachers of English; diagnostic sections and a training experiment.

The theoretical significance of the study is determined by the fact that it:

- The goals and objectives of the English language course, conducted in numerous groups of students, are defined, namely: the correction of speech skills and skills formed by students at the beginning of training; adaptation of students to new conditions for learning English; students mastering new forms and methods of teaching English;

- a new teaching context for the interaction of the teacher and students, focused on joint educational activities;

- the types and types of exercises necessary and sufficient for the formation, correction and improvement of speech skills, trained depending on the stage of their formation, are determined.

The practical significance of the study consists in the development of an educational-methodical complex of exercises for teaching speech skills and the skills of students in numerous groups.



Literature review

The differentiation and individualization of training has repeatedly become the subject of research in pedagogy (David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson, Karl A. Smith, 1991; Techachokwiwat N., 2011; Carpenter J., 2006; and others) and the methodology of teaching the English language (Brown H., 2000; Carbone E., Greenberg J., 1998; Slavin, R.1990; and others). However, with all the elaboration of the problem of using active teaching methods in English classes in numerous groups of students, they still have not received theoretical justifications and options for practical implementation.

Theoretical and practical issues of organizing corrective English courses, usually offered to university students at the beginning of training, were - developed in detail in the works of Nunan D., Widdowson H.G. and others.

The research so far conducted on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is based on teachers' and learners' views and perception of CLT and observation (e.g., Nunan, 1987; Wyatt, 2009; Xue, 2013). Nevertheless, very few studies have made an attempt to empirically test CLT. However, there are some studies which have tested some CLT approaches anyway and found effective results (Bughio, 2013; Shamim et al., 2011).

According to Richards and Rixon (2002, p. 5), who evaluated the project, the curriculum of the degree represented «a state-of-the-art coverage of the field of TESOL». The first methodology module, TEYL, introduced CLT, the importance of context and meaning in language learning (Donaldson, 1978), and the characteristics of children as learners (Halliwell, 1992). The practical assignment through which the module was assessed involved designing a communicative activity and trying it out in the classroom, before evaluating it.

This led into a second methodology module, when Cameron's (2001) communicative task (including preparation, core and follow-up elements) was introduced. Ideally, the «core» communicative activity of an oral task would create a desire and purpose for communication, allow for a focus on meaning rather than form and for freedom in choice of language. Private, spontaneous speech would be encouraged through the inclusion of closed pairwork and groupwork.

For their assignment, teachers were asked to design a communicative task appropriate for their learners, perhaps through adapting their coursebook. They needed to identify demands their core communicative element placed upon learners and plan how to support these in a Vygotskyan way (Lightbown & Spada, 1999). Through modifying their task until it was of a suitable challenge level, they might help learners achieve task outcomes, developing as language users in the process (Cameron, 2001). Further modules in the second and third year of the programme revisited communicative tasks in the light of fresh input: on teaching speaking and listening, teaching grammar and vocabulary, designing materials.

As Nunan (1987) writes: «While a great deal has been written on the theory and practice of communicative language teaching, there have been comparatively few studies of actual communicative language practices». While a great deal has been written on the theory and practice of communicative language teaching, there have been comparatively few studies of actual communicative language practices. A classroom-based study of communicative language practice revealed the persistence of non-communicative patterns of interaction (Nunan D.,1987). A follow-up study demonstrated that it is possible for teachers to foster more communicative language use. These studies demonstrate the importance of validating theory against what actually happens in the classroom.

The theoretical framework of this study by Techachokwiwat Navarat is based on claims about young learners' positive characteristics that facilitate language learning. It draws on Vygotsky and Bruner's concepts about children's learning, which are the reflections on Piaget's theory of development, especially in terms of sociocultural theory, as well as some relevant concepts on second language acquisition, task-based language teaching (TBLT), and interactions in learning. This study investigates the implementation of this EFL program instruction with English as the only medium of instruction delivered to these early-years learners of senior kindergarten level who are limited in capacity to communicate with other people even in their own first language. The focus is on language learning policy and language use. In the area of language learning policy, it explores how the formulated policy turns into the curricular focuses to promote English language acquisition. In the area of language use, it investigates classroom activities and how the teacher and the learners play roles in promoting or impeding the language learning in this classroom practice. This research study is conducted in interpretive / naturalistic paradigm to collect qualitative data authentically emerging during the instructional process in the 'natural setting' (Richards 2003: 10), through three major kinds of instruments: document reviews; observations; and interviews.

Faraz Ali Bugio in his work «Improving the teaching of English in large classes at the university level in Pakistan» describes a collaborative Action Research project that works to improve the quality of English language teaching (ELT) and learning in a public sector university in Pakistan. It demonstrates how teachers and students can take responsibility for engaging in active learning and teaching by developing their roles beyond traditional models of teaching and learning. The findings of the study are validated through critical thinking, the active critique of colleagues and students who participated in the study, reflection on critical aspects of data collection and by contextualizing findings within existing literature. Much of the research on large classes is written in the context of the West and has limited application to the problems of developing countries. Existing literature suggests a need for further work on large class teaching and learning in the developing world.

The final goal of the English course in numerous groups of students is the development of language skills and speech skills within the framework of spelling, spelling, lexical, grammatical and stylistic norms of the English language based on minimal cross-language knowledge and skills, as well as on the basis of acquired theoretical and practical knowledge and skills in the related courses. The objectives of the practical course are teaching vocabulary, grammar, reading, translation and partially interpretation, basic skills in speaking, listening, reading and writing in the field of general cultural communication; the development of high rates of perception and reaction to the utterance and the situation, represented by an authentic foreign language, characterized by normativity, as well as idiomatic expressions, etc.; development of skills of oral group communication in English.

As an example of the most commonly used tricks, the following are suggested:

* Round table.

To learn the interpretation of the problem and offers students: to assess the significance of the problems, demonstrate the pros and cons, determine the possible result, etc. Students should speak out on the question presented, argue their position and eventually come to a common decision.

* Brainstorm.

This technique also discusses and solves any problems. Nevertheless, the audience is divided into two groups - «generators of ideas», who are engaged in their own ideas, and «experts», who at the end of the «assault», evaluate the position of each «generator».

* Business game.

The teacher prepares the game on the topic studied and explains the rules to students. For example, job search, contracting, travelling, etc.

In pedagogical practice, there is an active teaching method - this is learning in collaboration. Slavin R. notes the presence of ideas for cooperation in learning from J. Russo, I. Pestalozzi and J. Dewey. The source of this size was A. Rivin, who developed a self-training system in exchangeable couples in the early 1920s. Students for 7-9 minutes exchanged ideas, discussed what they read or learned. Then the pairs changed. The experience of A. Rivin inspired many educators to apply and further develop his ideas.

The teaching methodology in cooperation with the universities of Minnesota (R. Johnson and D. Johnson), Johns Hopkins University (R. Slavin) and the University of California (E. Aronson), is also a group from Tel Aviv University (S. Sharan).

Table 1

Options for educational interaction in groups when teaching English

Developer	Development date	Title
D. Johnson and R. Johnson	the middle 1960s	Learning Together
D. Johnson and R. Johnson	the middle 1970s	Constructive Controversy
Sh. Sharan, Ya. Sharan	late 1970s	Group investigation
E. Aronson and others	late 1970s	Jigsaw, Jigsaw II
R. Slavin and others	late 1970s	STAD, Student Teams Achievement Divisions
E. Cohen	early 1980s	Complex Instruction
S. Kagan	the middle 1980s	Cooperative Learning Structures

As an active method of teaching English to students in numerous groups, we can apply the method developed at the University of Minnesota, which is called «Learning Together».

Students are divided into groups of 4-5 people and receive a common written assignment. The task boils down to completing this task in a collaboration mode. Work is not always evaluated, because the main goal is to determine how well students work in a team. R. and D. Johnson cite five conditions necessary for successful training in collaboration:

1. Positive interdependence: when completing the assignment, students should be clearly aware that the part of the assignment that they perform individually affects the quality of the entire assignment as a whole and the quality of assimilation by other students. Positive interdependence means that group members need each other to achieve the goal.

2. Personal contribution: each team member feels responsible for their own and team achievements in the study of the material and makes their active contribution to the work of the group. The teacher carefully monitors the process and evaluates the contribution of each student.

3. Joint educational, cognitive, creative and other activities: when completing the assignment, students encourage and support each other's educational achievements simply because they depend on each other. The teacher openly encourages students to help each other, as they help others by learning. Such interaction contributes to the inverse relationship between group members (testing ideas, building a belief system, exchanging opinions, etc.), and generates respect, attention and approval, which, in turn, also contributes to motivation to continue working on the task.

4. Social skills: to work effectively together, students need to apply communication skills: decision-making skills, building trust, direct communication skills, conflict resolution. But the assumption that students will listen, reflect, communicate effectively, inspire trust and respect each other is not always carried out in practice. Often, this should be allocated time outside the time of the task. And it's also the teacher's task to emphasize the importance of team skills to achieve the goals set by the course.

5. Evaluation of team work: groups periodically evaluate their achievements, how effectively they manage to work together, what needs to be done to make the work even more effective. One strategy is to ask each member of the group to list three tasks that the group has done well and one that needs to be improved.

The next, widespread version of educational work in collaboration groups is the «Saws» method (E. Aronson). Its essence is as follows: students are divided into groups to work on one task. Each member of the group receives his task and studies it independently. Then students from different groups, but working on the same task, meet and exchange the information they have gained. After the so-called «meeting of experts», students return to their groups and teach the rest of the participants in their group everything new that they themselves have learned. So, the only way to master all the information is to carefully listen to your teammates, ask questions, make notes in notebooks. The result of the work can be control by the teacher: he can ask a question on the topic studied to any member of the group and put one mark on all, so the whole group is interested in each of its participants to conscientiously work out all the material. A variation of the Saws method is the Saw II method. In this case, students work through all the material, paying particular attention to their aspect. Further, the work proceeds according to the principle of the «Saw» method.

Another version of the educational work in collaboration, which can be successfully applied in English classes, is called «Constructive Debate» (D. Johnson and R. Johnson). This is the use of intellectual contradictions for educational purposes. Students are divided into groups. Each group comprehensively studies one issue (event, phenomenon). Then the students present their question in the best way, arguing and defending their point of view, refuting the opposite point of view put forward by another group and, as a result of all debates, the synthesis and rethinking of the two points of view takes place. This option improves the quality of critical thinking, improves the skills of argumentation, problem solving and decision making, promotes the development of interpersonal relationships.

As the analysis of scientific and pedagogical literature shows, at present there are no uniform generally accepted standards or recommendations that determine the ratio of types of activities when teaching a foreign language in groups of students.

However, there is clearly a need for further qualitative research in this area.



Chapter 1. Definition of large classes

All over the world teachers face more challenges when they teach large classes. Large classrooms are those that indicate students-teacher ratios, it means full class with the numbers of pupils and teachers are unable to control, manage, and evaluate them. Many studies show such classrooms are finding in developing countries. There are many factors for establishing large classes: reduction/elimination of school fees and rapid population growth. These factors caused to increase class size and affect the quality of education and have brought negative results to the education system (Akhtar et al, 2012). Most of the teachers in Asia are working in schools that indicate many students or almost full of classroom. Large class does not have the exact size, it is measured by the number of students per teacher. So, 25-30 students for one teacher in some countries are thought large but in some countries it is a normal class and even though it is looks smaller. Moreover, from teachers view point when the students cannot learn or the lessons are not presented in a good quality and the number of the students is more than 50 is take account large class. And also, large class's students are able to learn the same as small class but they emphasis on the quality of lessons(UNESCO, 2006).As it is discussed by Hess (2011), thirty students or more than in one class in secondary and primary levels are called overcrowded. On the other hand, there is not an exact number or clear definition to establish large classes. As it is debated in some private language's school 20 students are accept large. And also, the average of large classes in Lancaster University is around 50 and in China 50-100 normally called large. Large class is the one that include more students than teacher can manage and prepare resources (Qiang & Ning, 2011). According to Flaieh Hasan (2012),large classes are creating problems and they are challengeable for teacher and students. As above definition “there can no quantitative definition of what constitutes a large class” (Hasan, 2012, p.1).

There is no definitive answer as to what number of students in a class can be a large class as it is a relative term. Teachers generally consider classes to be too large in comparison to what they have already been teaching. If they have been teaching twenty students in a class, thirty students in a class is a large class for them. Similarly, if they have been teaching forty students in a class, fifty will be large number for them (Ur, 1996). Another important factor in considering the size of a class is its relation to the subject being taught. For example, it will not be a problem for a teacher to teach a large class where the purpose of teaching is to transfer factual information as Hattie (2005, p. 411) writes: `For the classes of 80+ it is probably necessary to assume that individual students are already self-regulated to learn and the major task for teachers are to provide content; interpretation of this content; and assess students on the facility to absorb, and (slightly) transform this content into their words and beliefs.'

Thus, a class is a large not only with regards to what number teachers already teach (Coleman, 1989) but also with relation to the course being taught. As per requirement of those courses at university level, students are provided organized lectures, notes, resources, textbooks; assessment through terminal, semester or annual examinations. Therefore, at university level the size of a class does not make a great difference (Maxwell and Lopus, 1995). As a result, there is agreement among the researchers `that class size may matter in some courses or disciplines, but not in others' (Kokkelenberg et al., 2008). The contents of a subject are also important to consider while making judgement on the size of a class (Todd, 2006). Hence, there is no agreement in literature as to what should be the optimum number of students in a class. However, writers have given various numbers of students for a large class based on their observation and interview at various settings. Todd (2006, p. 2) has drawn a table that gives a figure for a large class by various writers.

The above table shows the maximum capacity for students in a class differs from author to author. Looking at the varying number for large classes and in the light of the literature discussed above, we can say that there are many factors involved when considering a class to be large or small. In the following section, I will further explore how the number of students in a class is a relative issue on account of various factors.

1.2 Problems of Teaching in Large Classes

There is no consensus when it comes to the effects of class size on students' learning achievements, but many language teachers hold a negative view on teaching English in large classes. Often can we hear them to say such words as “out of control”, “hard to organize class activities” or “impossible to communicate”. Similar worries are also shared by many researchers. Kennedy and Kennedy (1996) feel that it is difficult to control what happens when the number of group passes a certain number. Hayes (1997) thinks the ideal size of language class is 30 at most, because only under such a scale can offer enough chances for the students to communicate with each other. According to many teachers' views and complaints, Hayes classifies the problems associated with teaching in large classes into five categories:

1) Discomfort caused by the physical constraints;

2) Control problems (discipline aspects);

3) Lack of individual attentions;

4) Difficulty on evaluation;

5) Problems of charging learning effectiveness.

These problems can be physical, psychological butto a great extent technical. Harmer (2000) also finds out in his study that large classes bring difficulties to both teachers and students and process of teaching and learning. It is difficult for teachers to contact with the students sitting at the back and for students to get the individual attention, and it is even impossible to organize dynamic and creative teaching and learning sessions. Most importantly, large classes are especially daunting for inexperienced teachers. This also indicates that teachers need more technical strategies in large class. Synthesizing the earlier views, Locastro (2001) summarizes the problems of teaching large classes as pedagogical, management-related and affective. While large classes are not definitely a pedagogical disaster, the difficulties arisen from large classes raise more requirements to language teachers compared with those teaching smaller classes. From the late 20thcentury, the issues of handling large English classes also aroused the interest of teachers and researchers in China especially in higher education. ЈЁChen Dongmei &Tian Jianguo 2002, Liang Ying 2009, Shao Ying 2010, Xiong, Hui 2006, Yang Xingsheng 2008,Yuan Mingxi 2003, Zhu Zhenhua 1995Ј©Some researchers express concerns over the challenges encountered by the language teachers. For example, Zhang Jiamin (2002) analyzes the large classes in two colleges and identifies the problems as follows: 1) Discipline problems; 2) Effective learning; 3) Weariness, which confirms to those mentioned by some foreign researchers. Yu Jianqiong (2004) identifies some similar problems of large classes, e.g. students' individual differences are ignored and the classroom environment is worrying. She also mentions that limited chance for students to practice English hinders the improvement of their oral English, which is particularly true in foreign language context like China, since speaking English in class might be the only chance for students to practice oral English. These problems of college large classes are also reflected in those of primary and secondary schools. (Su Tongquan 2005, Tan Long 2009, Zhang Lian 2010).

To summarize at this point, for teaching large classes, it is difficult for teachers

1) to discipline the class, especially for primary and middle school students who are lack of self-control;

2) to satisfy all the needs of students who have different interests, personalities and capabilities;

3) to organize efficient class activities due to the constraints of time and space;

4) to provide equal chances for the students to participate and practice;

5) to give timely and effective feedback and evaluation.

But like some foreign researchers such as Ur (2000) and Hess (2001), who argue that large classes can provide richer human resources and greater opportunities for creativity than smaller class, some Chinese researchers also identify some advantages of teaching large classes. Xu Zhichang (2001) notices that more students mean more ideas, and therefore, provide more opinions and possibilities. Qi Li and Wang Jiana (2009) complement three more advantages in detail by saying that large classes can provide more opportunities for students' interaction, foster an atmosphere of cooperation and encourage creativity and innovation. Therefore large classes bring not only challenges but also opportunities for teachers, as noted by Lewis and Woodward (1988), it is the teaching methodology rather than class size that contributes best to the efficacy of teaching. Such views encourage teachers to take adaptive teaching strategies to cope with the problems arisen from the environment. The following chart summarizes the possible problems that teachers could have in large classes:

Fig. Advantages of large classes

differentiation exercise english large group

Some researchers argue that large classes can bring opportunities and present human resources than smaller classes. They added more students to share their ideas and provide more details with opinions and possibilities. Large classes give chances for students to cooperate with other students and also, encourage the students to create the new knowledge(Qiang & Ning, 2011).

Although, teaching large classes provide the opportunities for teachers to improve organizational and managerial skills. So, teachers try to organize their classroom comfortable and manage many students in a pleased environment. Moreover, teachers can find the chance in large class to improve their teaching and presentation skills. In large class there are different students with different learning styles and teachers can use multiple activities and methods during their teaching. In addition, large class improve teachers' evaluation skills that teachers exercise different ways to observe their students, they really learned the lessons. Teacher can give assignments to their students inside or outside the class to know what the students learned. The other advantages of a large class are that many students participate in one class and they can share their ideas and life experiences.

This motivates the students to discuss and learn from each other. Moreover, students can help to each other and share the responsibilities (UNESCO, 2006).As, Hess (2011), discussed his own experience, when we teach large classes, we frequently have desire to teach a small group or a class. Though, he mentioned his experience of teaching in very small classes. He explained “one particular group consisted of eight young men from the same school in Turkey. They knew everything about one another and were soon quite tired of one another's company. The class settled into a dull pace until one evening, because of the absence of another teacher, fifteen lower-level students from another class joined us. I was amazed to see how the influx of these new students, whose presence made the class infinitely more multileveled, increased the interest, energy-level, and linguistic output of the entire group” (Hess, 2011, p.3).

Likewise, in a large class there are many students with many opinions or maybe different cultural and different experience and learning styles. The students can share their ideas and create an effective discussion or positive classroom atmosphere that support language learning with close cooperation to each other. So, in large classes some students learn quickly, and then he/she can be the assistant of his/her teacher to help the other colleagues. It is useful methods that weak students learn better form other students or his classmate.

1.3 Strategies of teaching in large classes

According to the numerous research results there are particular principles and strategies of teaching large classes. These strategies are based on the challenges and advantages of large classes (Qiang & Ning, 2011). That is “how to strengthen communication and cooperation, how to apply multimedia instruction efficiently, how to enhance creative teaching, how to organize learner-centered discussions and activities, how to strengthen the management of the students sitting at the back” (Qiang& Ning, 2011, p. 3-4). Teachers face pedagogical and management challenges. Stating the key principles of successful work in large groups we should name the following four basic principles. First principle is to get familiarized with students, know their personal information, use students' names when asking questions. According to the second principle, teachers should have close contact with the students and establish safe and supporting environment. Besides that, it is necessary to give feedback immediately to students for them know better their learning progress. Third principle is to provide equal opportunities for weaker and stronger and give them different tasks according to their levels. The fourth principle states that teachers should find out students' interests and use different teaching methods with multiple activities. Regarding class management which is related to class discipline, the first tool is to keep voice lower, walk around the class and create helpful practice. Secondly, teachers can make groups in different ways, namely, by interests or mixing students according their language levels. Thirdly, teachers can check homework using different techniques such as motivate pupils to mark their homework by themselves, motivate the students to mark their homework in groups, give homework with group feedback.

With the regard to pedagogical issues, it is crucial to give opportunities to students to participate in class activities such as pair, individual work, group work and whole class work. Secondly, teachers should use new modes and change traditional teaching objectives, “organize cooperative learning activities as think-pair-share, three-step interview, and jigsaw to develop students' comprehensive language competence and cooperative skills” (Qiang & Ning, 2011, p. 5). Thirdly, it is the implementation of different evaluation strategies: summative, self-assessment and formative assessment (ibid). Lesson planning is the other strategy in large classes that help teachers to use the time properly. It is very important for teachers because they usually suffer from lack of time. In large classes lesson plan is not for comfort, it is the necessity as it helps the teacher to manage the classroom environment. Teachers should feel free or be comfortable about the subject they are teaching. Teaching in large classes is not easy for teachers feeling lack of knowledge or self-confidence. Teachers should be able to continue, adopt or adjust class activities throughout class, be ready to predict the questions students can ask, make the questions for the students (UNESCO, 2006).

Teachers must know the objectives of teaching, skills, methods and students' manners. This is about the skill to create clear and specific lessons, arrange lessons logically and present problems when explaining the answers to the pupils. Teachers should use individual activities, pair work and group work to describe the target activities. The necessary skills of the teacher are to keep the class silent, pay individual attention to students during classroom activities, arrange the class and identify the difficulties without delay. In large classes teachers must teach energetically and emotionally, if teachers feel tired the students will soon get tired too (UNESCO, 2006). Eventually, a large class or an overcrowded class is related to the number of the students in a classroom, it means a class that the teachers are unable to control, manage and have sufficient performance including communication with students. On the other hand, LC helps students share their ideas and learn from each other. In addition, LC provides the opportunity for teachers to improve managerial skills and some presentation techniques (Qiang & Ning, 2011).

1.4 Cooperative Learning in Large Classes

Cooperative learning can be defined as concepts and techniques for enhancing the value of student-student interaction. Cooperative learning has a long history going back at least to the 19^th century (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Indeed, the ideas that “two (or more) heads are better than one” and that “many hands make light the work” have ancient roots in many of the world's cultures. In the Philippines, they call it the “Bayanihan spirit”. In the Indonesian and Malay languages, it is called “gotong rayong.” Slavin (1995) notes that a wide range of theories support the use of cooperative learning. Theories that underpin cooperative learning are supported by research (for reviews, see Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000; Sharan, 1980; Slavin, 1995).

Indeed, cooperative learning is perhaps the sub-field of education on which the most research has been done in many countries across all ages of students. What these studies show is that usually, but not always, group activities organized along cooperative learning principles lead to gains on an impressive variety of key variables in education, starting with gains in achievement as measured by standardized tests and other instruments. Other variables on which cooperative learning appears to have a positive impact include liking for school and for peers, self-esteem, locus of control (i.e., the idea that we have some control of our own fate), relations between different ethnic groups, acceptance of mainstreamed pupils, such as students with learning disabilities in the same class as other students, and thinking skills. Here are a few examples of such studies. Slavin and Karweit (1984) compared the effects of cooperative learning and mastery learning on the mathematics achievement of secondary school students and found that those students who studied via cooperative learning outperformed those who used mastery learning. Calderon, et al. (1997) found that when compared with other instructional methods, cooperative learning was generally associated with higher achievement in reading among primary school students enrolled in bilingual education programs. As noted above, in addition to achievement, cooperative learning has also been associated with better results on affective measures. For instance, Johnson and Johnson (1981) conducted a study of friendships between handicapped and non-handicapped primary school students. They reported that when compared with individualistic learning experiences, working in cooperative learning groups promoted more cross-handicap friendships among students.

Different approaches to cooperative learning exist, each with a slightly different list of principles (Sharan, 1994, in press; Slavin, 1995). Below are eight principles we use in our own application of cooperative learning.

1. Positive Interdependence

This principle lies at the heart of cooperative learning. This is what encourages group members to care about and support one another in the learning process. Positive interdependence represents the feeling among group members that they “sink or swim together,” that what helps one member succeed helps all members succeed, and whatever hurts any group member, hurts all (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Positive interdependence among group members can be encouraged in many ways. A common goal that they need to work together to achieve, such as understanding a mathematical procedure, answering a set of questions, preparing to do well on a quiz, or writing a letter. Another means of promoting positive interdependence is via a common identity, such as a group name or handshake. We can also divide resources that group members need to share in order to complete a task, such as when each group member has unique information. Additionally, there can be a common celebration or reward that groupmates will share if they achieve their goal, such as recognition from the teacher, performing of their silent team cheer, or bonus points. Further, each group member can play a different role in helping the group to function. Some of these rotating roles include timekeeper, encourager (who encourages everyone to participate), checker (who checks that everyone has understood), noise monitor (who reminds groupmates to use quiet voices), and recorder (who takes notes on what the group has discussed and decided).

2. Individual Accountability

Whereas positive interdependence involves group members supporting one another, individual accountability is about the pressure on each group member to learn and to help their group mates learn. Individual accountability can be encouraged in many ways (Jacobs, Gan, & Ball, 1997). For instance, each student can take a turn to tell their ideas to one or more group mates. Alternatively, one at a time, students can write their ideas on a paper that circulates among the group. Another way to foster individual accountability is for each group member to take an individual quiz or hand in an individual assignment. Yet another way is for a teacher to randomly select a group member to report and explain to another group or to the class what their group thought or did.

3. Heterogeneous Grouping

Most approaches to cooperative learning recommend that students usually, but not always, work in heterogeneous groups (Cohen, 1994). An advantage is that students learn to work with people who are different than them. In that way, they areexposed to diverse ideas and perspectives from a variety of people. Heterogeneous groups may be formed using criteria such as past achievement, ethnicity, gender, first language, and personality (for instance, talkative-quiet, hardworking-relaxed).

4. Collaborative Skills

Rather than assume that students already have the skills needed to work together, teachers provide explicit instruction and structured practice in these collaborative skills (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Also, the class discusses the importance of such skills. Many collaborative skills play key roles in effective group function. These include asking for help, providing reasons, disagreeing politely, checking that others understand, using quiet voices, listening attentively, and taking turns.

5. Equal Participation

A common problem in groups is that some group members end up doing most of the work and, as a result, most of the learning. Cooperative learning seeks to address this by attempting to structure the interaction in the groups so as to make the participation more equal (Kagan, 1994). Cooperative learning seeks to encourage equal participation in a number of ways. First, in some techniques no one speaks or writes twice until everyone in the group has spoken or written once. Another means is for students to have rotating roles in the group (for example, first they are the interviewer and then they are the interviewee). A third means is for each student to be given a set amount of time to share their ideas with one or more group mates. Also, groups do not have a permanent representative who always speaks for the group. Instead, everyone gets a chance to play that role.

6. Simultaneous Interaction

This principle provides a central rationale for the use of groups, particularly in large classes. In the typical teacher-fronted classroom, the interaction pattern is sequential interaction. In other words, one person talks at a time. The classic pattern of sequential interaction involves teacher talk, then teacher nomination of individual students to talk (often to answer a question by the teacher), student response, and teacher evaluation of the student's response. In this interaction format, each student has very little opportunity to talk. This is particularly the case in large classes. Group activities radically alter this one-at-a-time scenario, because instead of one person per class talking, now one person per group is talking simultaneously, hence the term “simultaneous interaction” (Kagan, 1994). Thus, if a class of forty-eight students are working in groups of four, twelve students (one in each group of four) are talking at the same time. If the class is working in pairs, twenty-four are talking simultaneously. The principle of simultaneous interaction is one reason for keeping groups small. With eight students per group in our class of forty-eight, only six students are talking simultaneously during group activities.

7. Group Autonomy

For many people -students, administrators, parents, and teachers -teaching means the teacher talking. So, what are we teachers supposed to do when our students are working in groups? What we should not do is to jump in and take over a group the first time students face difficulty. Instead, we should encourage groups to solve their own problems. We want to shift some of the power about what happens in the classroom and some of the responsibility for learning and behavior away from ourselves and give it to students in their groups (Baloche, 1998; Cohen, 1994). By encouraging groups to feel more autonomous from their teachers, we are not abandoning students. We are not giving them a task to do cooperatively and then heading to the school canteen for a glass of mango juice or burying ourselves at our desks to catch up on marking. Instead, we are walking around monitoring the groups to see how well they understand concepts, how well they perform skills, and how well they work together. Sometimes, we intervene to help the groups function more effectively, but other times we do not.

8. Cooperation as a Value

Last, but definitely not least, comes the idea that cooperation represents not only a way to learn but also a value to appreciate and to incorporate in all aspects of our lives (Forest, 2001; Sapon-Shevin, 1999). This does not mean that competition should be banned or that students should never work alone. However, in much of today's world, cooperation is devalued and unappreciated (Kohn, 1992). By making cooperation a value, we broaden the concept of cooperation beyond what happens in small groups of 2, 3, or 4 students. We extend the concept by encouraging students to recognize and act upon the positive interdependence that exists between themselves and others throughout the class, throughout the school, throughout their community, throughout their country, and around the world, including not just humans but other species as well. We can use man ways to promote cooperation as a value and enhance the positive interdependence of our actions on the lives of all around us. For instance, groups can each do an aspect of a class project. Class and school goals can be used rather than only group goals. When these goals are achieved, class or school celebrations can be held or other rewards can be given. Cooperation can extend beyond the school as well. For example, students can be involved in projects outside the school to help others and to protect the environment. Along the same lines, communication and joint tasks can be carried out with students from different schools in the same country and internationally. Examination of these eight cooperative learning principles clearly shows the difference between cooperative learning and traditional group work. In traditional group work, we ask students to form groups and hope that everything will go well. With cooperative learning, we plan, prepare, and follow-up in order to give the group activities the best possible opportunity to succeed. Part of this planning and preparation involve drawing upon cooperative learning principles, as well as sharing ideas with other educators by discussing and examining the literature on cooperative learning.

Key findings of chapter 1:

It can be seen that a large class is a relative concept. Problems and difficulties of teaching associated with large classes can also be found in smaller classes. Teachers need to view large classes from a different perspective and recognize that despite a lot of disadvantages they can also provide many opportunities for teaching and learning. Class size is not the determining factor of teaching efficiency. Teachers need to enhance their innovative awareness and capabilities for developing effective ways for dealing with large classes based on the characteristics of large classes.

In this chapter, we began with a definition of «large class», then we discussed problems and advantages of large classes, and described some strategies of teaching in large classes. Moreover, we gave brief introduction to cooperative learning. Next, we looked at why cooperative learning should be used in large classes and made some suggestions for how this can be achieved. We have only skimmed the surface in this chapter, as the facilitation of student-student interaction is a huge topic.



Chapter 2: Active learning strategies in teaching numerous groups of students

2.1 Why use cooperative learning in large classes

Now, let us return to the specific case of cooperative learning in large classes. The problem of large classes makes cooperative learning even more necessary than it is in smaller classes. Here are three reasons why cooperative learning is particularly useful in large classes. First, in a teacher-fronted mode of instruction, the larger the class, the less each student gets to speak. As mentioned in the principle of Simultaneous Interaction, cooperative learning helps students become more active. The talking that students do in groups pushes them to understand better so as to be able to put their understanding into words. Secondly, in large classes, it is difficult for teachers to give feedback to individual students. In contrast, with cooperative learning, group mates are right there to supply feedback. Thirdly, in large classes, students may easily feel lost and anonymous. However, with cooperative learning, each person is part of a group that cares about whether they are present and how they are doing.

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