Peculiarities of school education performing in the rural areas of Ukraine in 1953-1964

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Peculiarities of school education performing in the rural areas of Ukraine in 1953-1964

Yanina Fedorenko

PhD hab. (History), Associate Professor, Associate Professor of Social Sciences Department, Cherkasy Institute of Fire Safety named after Chernobyl Heroes of National University of Civil Defense of Ukraine

Olga Krichker

PhD (History), Lecturer in Foreign Languages Department, Cherkasy Institute of Fire Safety named after Chernobyl Heroes of National University of Civil Defense of Ukraine

The purpose of the research is to research the development of secondary school education in the countryside of Ukraine in 1953-1964 on the basis of the analysis of the references, using the latest principles and methods of solidly historical cognition. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, scientific character, verification, authors ' objectivity, and the use of historical-statistical, institutional, systematic and problematic-chronological methods, methods of comparative judgment and generalizing inference. The scientific novelty. The dynamics of development of secondary education in the rural areas in 1953-1964 was traced. A detailed analysis for in-depth knowledge of that time forms of training of rural people was made. The positive aspects and disadvantages of the educational transformations of1953-1964 were analyzed. One of the advantages was the elimination of illiteracy of rural people; among the negative aspects were shortage of skilled personnel, reduction of hours devoted to humanity subjects, overloading most rural schools pupils with labor during industrial training, and divorcement of that labor from the curricula, the transformation of schools into powerful coordinators of ideological work. Conclusions. In general, the period from 1953 to 1964 was marked by a complex process of secondary school restructuring. Since 1958, instead of seven-year, a compulsory eight-year school education was introduced, thus, full secondary education could be received in three stages: after finishing full secondary school, by continuing education at a school of rural or working youth or in a labor polytechnic school with industrial training, which was compulsory in the upper classes and, in the rural areas, was functioning in the form of pupil 's production brigades. It was thanks to it that rural pupils of senior classes could receive the skills of work. So, the development of the school education in the rural areas helped to solve one of the main tasks - illiteracy among rural population - and gave rural people the opportunity to get further education in training colleges and agricultural higher educational institutions.

Keywords: Ukrainian village; educational reform; educational process; school; industrial training.

Анотація

Особливості реформування шкільної освіти в сільській місцевості України у 1953-1964 рр.

Яніна Федоренко

доктор історичних наук, доцент, доцент кафедри суспільних наук, Черкаський інститут пожежної безпеки імені Героїв Чорнобиля Національного університету цивільного захисту України

Ольга Крічкер

кандидат історичних наук, викладач кафедри іноземних мов, Черкаський інститут пожежної безпеки імені Героїв Чорнобиля Національного університету цивільного захисту України

Мета дослідження полягає у тому, щоб на основі аналізу, залученого до статті матеріалу, оперуючи новітніми принципами і методами науково-історичного пізнання, дослідити розвиток середньої шкільної освіти у сільській місцевості України у 1953-1964 рр. Методологія дослідження спирається на принципи історизму, науковості, верифікації, авторської об'єктивності, на використання історико-статистичного, інститу- ційного, системного та проблемно -хронологічного методу, а також методів порівняльного судження і узагальнювального умовиводу. Наукова новизна. Простежено динаміку розвитку середньої освіти в 1953-1964 рр. у сільській місцевості. Зроблено детальний аналіз та поглиблено знання про наявні на той час форми навчання селян. Проаналізовано позитивні сторони і недоліки освітніх трансформацій 1953-1964 рр. До позитиву зараховуємо подолання малоосвіченості селян, негативний бік - нестача кваліфікованих кадрів, зменшення годин, відведених на гуманітарну складову, переобтяження учнів більшості сільських шкіл працею у процесі виробничого навчання та відірваність цієї праці від виховних завдань школи, перетворення шкільних закладів на могутніх координаторів ідеологічної роботи. Висновки. Отже, у період з 1953 до 1964 р. пройшов складний процес перебудови середньої школи. Із 1958 р. замість семирічного навчання вводилось обов'язкове восьмирічне, а повну середню освіту можна було здобути у три етапи: отримавши повну середню освіту, про - довжуючи навчання у школі сільської чи робітничої молоді або у трудовій політехнічній школі із виробничим навчанням. Обов 'яз- ковим у старших класах стало і виробниче навчання, яке існувало у сільській місцевості у формі учнівських виробничих бригад. Зав - дяки йому сільські старшокласники отримали можливість здобути перші професійні навики. Таким чином, розвиток шкільної освіти у сільській місцевості допоміг розв'язати одне із основних завдань - подолати малоосвіченість сільського населення та надав сільським мешканцям можливість продовжити освіту в техні- кумах й сільськогосподарських ВНЗ.

Ключові слова: українське село; реформа освіти; навчаль- ний процес; школа; виробниче навчання.

Problem statement. Nowadays, Ukrainian society witnesses a complete transformation of the usual way of life through a series of reforms that have resulted from the aspiration of our people for the European integration as one of the key requirements of the Revolution of Dignity. These were judicial, anti-corruption, pension, medical and educational reforms, which, when implemented, immediately gave rise to the Ukrainians' complaints. In this context, the educa - tional reform or the New Ukrainian School reform, according to which a transition to a 12-year school system took place in the academic year 2018/2019, has stood out as the educational institutions have became autonomous, and the share of the Ukrainian language in the educational process has increased significantly.

However, the implementation of the educational reform has immediately encountered many difficulties, ranging from the banal lack of funds needed for its implementation (especially in rural areas) to the inability of a large number of teachers to accept the philosophy of the New Ukrainian School, oriented towards European values. In addition, the reform has caused indignation of neighboring countries - Hungary and Romania, which considered it would narrow minority rights to study in their native languages. Therefore, many scholars hold that instead of a full-fledged educational reform the Ministry of Education carried out only a so-called «redecoration» of the educational achievements of the period of independence and updated the education reform of 1996.

In view of this, we consider that referring to the past experience can help facilitate effective performance of the New Ukrainian School reform, both in the cities and rural areas, and fix inefficiencies that have become apparent in the process of its implementation. Its objective analysis can undoubtedly be useful in solving many problems of modern educational sector, and to avoid possible errors in the future. In this context, the period of 1953-1964 - Khrushchev's Thaw period - is of particular interest because, in spite of its half nature, after extremely difficult years of the war, repressions and famine, there were profound changes that significantly influenced the transformation of all spheres of cultural and spiritual life of Ukrainian rural people, including, of course, the educational sector. Scientific reflection and critical analysis of the schooling reform of 1953-1964, as well as the implementation of innovations in rural areas will help to provide a holistic view of the educational transformations of our state.

The analysis of sources and recent researches. The period of the national history which lasted from 1953 to 1964 is the subject of study of many historians and scholars of other sciences. In particular, profound data on secondary school reform of the period in question are presented in the scientific papers of Y.S. Berezniak, A.D. Bondar, I.M. Romaniuk. However, when using scientific research data, it is necessary to take into account the period in which they were created (1960s), hence, the contents should be treated objectively and critically. Scientific papers by modern scientists, such as K.M. Timchuk, O.Yu. Kaganova, H.I. Lysenko, who have elaborated on the issues relevant to our topic, complement our research, too. school education rural ukraine

The publication's purpose. The purpose of the paper is, on the basis of the analysis of the references, using the latest principles and methods of solidly historical cognition, to research the development of secondary school education in the countryside of Ukraine in 1953-1964.

Statement of the basic material. In the early 1950s, secondary schools, which later on underwent significant reforming, were the main element of the educational processes in the villages of the USSR. It is worth noting that by 1958 all general schools had the following structure. Children of junior school age (7-10 years old) attended four-year elementary school. The next stage was a compulsory seven- year school for children aged 7 to 13 -14, followed by secondary (ten- year) school for young children aged 7 to 17-18 years old. During 1953-1957 the introduction of labor in the elementary school, as well as practical classes at workshops and school educational-experimental plots for the pupils of the 5th - 7th forms was the most significant change in the secondary school curriculum (TsDAHO Ukrainy, f. 1, d. 31, c. 369, p. 2).

At the end of the 1950s, the reformer and remarkable individual of Thaw period M.S. Khrushchev made new transformations in the educational sector. On December 24, 1958, the Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted the Law on the Strengthening of the Relationship of School and Life and the Further Development of the National Education System in the USSR, which determined the main tasks that arose at a new stage before the Soviet school (Tymchuk, 2011, p. 66).

According to that new documentary and regulatory structure, since the end of the 1950s education was got in two stages. The first stage consisted of obtaining compulsory secondary education, and the second one was divided into three types of complete secondary education:

a) schooling at a working and rural youth secondary school;

b) schooling at a secondary general labor polytechnic school with job training;

c) training a part of youth in secondary specialized educational institutions.

Since then, instead of compulsory seven-year secondary education, general eight-year education had been introduced. Already in 1960, 95.5 % of the pupils who finished the seventh form passed the eighth class (Fedorenko, 2008, p. 186).

The transition to the new system of education was carried out gradually, firstly in the junior school, and then in the senior school. There were also changes in the curriculum (there were introduced some elements of history and science in the 1th - 4th forms, and in 5th - 8th forms the number of mathematical and natural sciences was increased due to the reduction of humanities) and textbooks that were adapted to new curricula.

Reduction in the number of academic hours for humanitarian disciplines caused indignation in some prominent educators, including V.O. Sukhomlynsky, who began to complain about the threat of lowering the level of general secondary education and the lack of schools for more gifted children (Kahanov, 2018, p. 69).

The introduction of industrial training was a new idea of the school curricula in the mid-1950s - early 1960s. This was, in fact, a practical application of the so-called Leninist idea of a labor polytechnic school introduced in the 1920s when all senior schools were reorganized into vocational schools. The official version of government was that the secondary education of young people should be «based on a combination of learning and productive labor so that all young people of this age were included in the socially useful work» It should be noted that industrial training had been practiced since the academic year 1954/1955, and the background to its implementation was the creation of vocational groups at schools and guided tours to various forms of production. In the academic year 1955/1956, workshops on the basis of agriculture, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering were implemented in the educational process. Technical and agricultural groups at secondary schools contributed to the improvement of knowledge and skills received at educational workshops during practical classes (Kushnir, 2014, p. 70).

Industrial training was practiced in the 8th - 10th forms. The establishment of productive training in schools was dictated by the resolutions of the XXth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The authorities insisted on the reconstruction of the educational work in high schools for deeper industrial specialization so that the youth after a 10-year school had a good basic education paving the way to higher education. Moreover, the youth had to be prepared for practical work, because most of school graduates started to work immediately after finishing school in various sectors of the national economy. After the implementation of the new educational reforms, this kind of education had become one of the main obligetory points in the curriculum in the upper classes, providing rural youth with specialized education, thereafter stopping their migration to the city.

Schools which shifted to the industrial training program had special curricula, according to which there were 6 hours of industrial training per week in the 8th - 10th forms. Teaching loads increased by 2 hours, while the number of academic hours for Ukrainian and Russian Literature, Physics, Chemistry, History, Foreign Languages was reduced. The program also provided for a 25 -day workshop practice in the 8th and 9th forms.

Pupils' production brigades created at rural high schools became a common form of industrial training in the villages of Ukraine during the specified period. Their task was to combine educational work at school with collective farm production. Pupils' brigades were organized throughout the USSR. The largest number of them was concentrated in the Crimean, Kharkivs'ka, Kirovograds'ka, Odes'ka oblasts.

The work of the pupils' brigades was organized in the following way: for instance, Novoprazs'ka high school production brigade (in Kirovograds'ka oblast) established in April 1957 united 117 pupils, who were allotted 91 hectares of land, necessary tools and equipment by the collective farm management. Pupils studied for 5 days and worked one day in the field. During holidays the brigade cultivated the land plot 4-6 hours five days a week, while Saturdays and Sundays were days off used for excursions, sports and amateur performances (Bondar, 1968, p. 118).

The results of the school brigades' a ctivity were quite significant. Pupils' industrial brigades of Novoselytsia secondary school in Shpoliansky district gathered in the crops 92 dt/ha of corn grain from a five-hectare plot, Voznesens'ka secondary school in Zolotonis'ky district - 89 dt/ha of corn per 4 hectares and 35 dt/ha of wheat of the same space; Kozatska secondary school of Zvenigorods'ky district 67 dt/ha of maize corn, 37 dt/ha of wheat and 300 dt/ha of beets per five hectares, Victorovs'ka secondary school - 422 dt/ha of sugar beet per 4 hectares. In 1959 in Ukraine about 5.000 school production brigades united 200.000 senior pupils who were allotted 100 thousand hectares of land (TsDAVO Ukrainy, f. 5111, d. 1, c. 193, p. 73).

The lack of the skilled personnel in Ukrainian villages made the Ministry of Education of the USSR develop programs for rural schools for the preparation of agricultural machinery mechanizers of multiple types. In the academic year 1960/1961, almost 70 schools in Kirovograds'ka oblast followed the new industrial training program preparing mechanizers of multiple types (Zavadska, 1964, p. 126). Senior pupils of these schools were supposed to learn to drive tractors, combine harves - ters and other farming equipment, acquire knowledge and skills in metallurgy, electricity, and study the basics of agronomy and zootechnics.

The organization of industrial training according to the requirements of the new program was influenced by such important factors as special economic conditions of the district and school. For example, Bogdanovs'ky secondary school in Znamens'ky district of Kirovo- grads'ka oblast trained mechanizers of multiple types on the basis of the educational and research facilities of the school, which was an integral part of the collective farm and had a land plot, a garden, an apiary, tractors, a motor vehicle, a combine (Zavadska, 1964, p. 126).

Pupils combined studying compulsory secondary education course subjects (Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics) with optional - Machine Science, Mechanization of Agriculture and The Basics of Agricultural Production. That school developed an effective learning and practice system, which included three components: a) «learning by doing» classes in the agrobiological classroom, in the mechanization classroom, as well as outside in the natural environment; b) workshop field practice; c) a complex of «learning by doing» experiments on the cultivation of some crops.

Research work in rural schools became an integral part of the industrial training programs. In particular, in 1961, 1.300 production brigades were engaged in research work, and in 1962 they were already up to 2.000. Collective farms, state farms, plant breeding stations, variety test plots, etc. provided assistance in carrying out experiments at schools.

Thus, in Cherkas'ka oblast, over 200 pupil brigades worked as assigned by research institutes; in Kharkivs'ka oblast 128 brigades carried out 25 experiments on crop science and livestock raising with 12 out of these experiments being assigned by scientists. Many rural schools established contacts with leading higher education institutions. One of them was Ivanivs'ka secondary school in Kyivs'ka oblast which cooperated with the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and, upon its recommendations, conducted experiments on the study of the impact of microfertilizers on maize crop. Korsun-Shevchenkivs'ka school was under the auspices of the Department of Agronomy of Odessa Agricultural Institute and, on its instruction, conducted a study on the application of micronutrients in maize cultivation (Zavadska, 1964, p. 129).

A common type of production training was the work of pupils' brigades on livestock enterprises, dairy, poultry farms. So, one of the first learning and practice farms was established in Sums'ka oblast in Chornoplatovs'ka Secondary School, where 86 calves were placed under custody of pupils (Kolosova, 1960, p. 42). Combining their knowledge of zoology and breeding, pupils tended for animals, observed their behavior and development, and received practical skills while deepening knowledge of school subjects.

However, there were very serious shortcomings in the work of pupils' brigades, the first and foremost of which was overloading of children of most rural schools with agricultural labor and distance of that labor from the educational objectives of school. For example, 70 students of Azovs'ka high school pupils' brigade in Crimean oblast were allotted 260 hectares of land. They could not farm the fields properly and it was obvious that the pupils could not keep the crops they cultivated; as a result, they did not have the planned harvest. In addition, they did not acquire knowledge and skills described in the curriculum (Bondar, 19678, p. 171). Many rural schools throughout the USSR faced such a problem. For example, pupils of Talalaievs'ka, Smilivs'ka, Hlyns'ka, Tereshkivs'ka schools of Romny district in Sums'ka oblast were overloaded with labor in «learning by doing» brigades. There was about one hectare of land per pupil who, of course, could not cultivate it qualitatively (TsDAVO Ukrainy, f. 166, d. 15, c. 3045, p. 120).

In the early 1960s, industrial training plans were rethought to make them more realistic, more adaptable to life. Pupils' brigades remained one of the forms of labor and professional training at schools, but the size of the land plots given to them was reduced. Since then, it depended on the number of pupils in the brigade, the degree of mechanization of the economy, as well as the time they could set aside for labor.

During 1950s - 1960s schools of rural youth were also a common form of education in rural areas. In these schools, seven-year school graduates who worked on collective farms could receive secondary education and upgraded their skills (Bereznyak, 1964, p. 32). Such schools were usually evening or part-time, located as a separate educational institution or as organized classes in primary, seven-year, or secondary schools. In some oblasts (Kyivs'ka, Cherkas'ka, Chernihivs'ka) rural youth schools were created right on livestock farms or in collective farm brigades (TsDAVO Ukrainy, f. 166, d. 15, c. 2709, p. 6). They were popular: in the academic year 1955/1956 there were 2.808 schools of rural youth which accounted for 81.8 thousand students («Kulturnoe stroitelstvo», 1956, p. 119), and in the early 1960s their number increased almost threefold. There were one or two, rarely three classes in schools of rural youth. For example, in the village of Berezova Balka, in Vol- hans'ky region of Kirovograds'ka oblast in 1957-1958 there studied 26 people in two classes (9th and 10th forms) of secondary school (DAKO, f.r-3175, d. 6, c. 383, p. 9), and in the village Kutsevolivka of Onufriivsky district of the same oblast there were organized 3 classes of rural youth with 21 pupils (DAKO, f.r-3175, d. 6, c. 327, p. 56).

There was also a kind of evening school of rural youth - training school where students combined getting general education with upgrading their political literacy. Training schools operated mostly in Western Ukraine, where the policy of the Soviet power was not popular among the population. In the villages of Chernivtsi region, there were organized 35 training schools (TsDAVO Ukrainy, f. 5111, d. 1, c. 321, p. 28). The creation of such educational institutions motivated young people to learn there by material interests, because they received 5% wage supplements on collective farms, and after their graduation they took a degree of the master of collective farm production, whose salaries were 10-15% higher than of an average farmer (Alterovich, 1969, p. 91).

More than a half of rural youth school students were made up of young mechanizers, livestock breeders, and section leaders. According to the data of the Agriculture and Procurement Department, as early as in the beginning of 1960s, after the Law on Strengthening the Relationships of School With Life and Further Development of the System of Public Education was published, youth quality in rural youth schools where workshop heads of collective farms and state farms were trained (heads of collective farms, their deputies, heads of farms, accountants of collective farms, etc.) improved greatly (TsDAVO Ukrainy, f. 2, d. 9, c. 7590, p. 168).

In Kitsmansky district in Chernihivs'ka oblast, all the brig ade leaders, section leaders, mechanizers, livestock enterprise workers who did not have any secondary or eight-year education went to rural youth schools, and in Zastavniansky district of the same oblast out of 1.900 people who finished school in 1961/1962, 70% were shock workers of collective-farm production: 45 heads of collective farms and village councils, 80 brigade leaders, 113 section leaders, 173 livestock breeders, 98 mechanizers. 3.500 shock workers studied at rural youth and training schools in Volyns'ka oblast. Many shock workers got that way their secondary education in Kyivs'ka, Cherkas'ka, Chernivets'ka oblasts (TsDAVO Ukrainy, f. 2, d. 9, c. 3717, p. 163).

Thanks to the secondary education reforming, already by the end of the 1950s those rural people who had been eager to study were empowered to get further vocational secondary and higher education. Agricultural training colleges, which consisted mostly of rural youth, had become quite popular in this regard. Between 1959 and 1965, they trained 18-24 thousand junior agricolists, livestock experts, veterinary technicians, accountants and other specialists annually (Istoriia selianstva, 1967, p. 510). Even so, the shortage of qualified personnel had been a vexed problem of the Ukrainian village for a long time because the majority of the rural schools graduates did not leave villages and continued to work on collective farms limiting themselves with basic school education.

Conclusions. In general, the period from 1953 to 1964 was marked by a complex process of secondary school restructuring. Since 1958, instead of seven-year, a compulsory eight-year school education was introduced, thus, full secondary education could be received in three stages: after finishing full secondary school, by continuing education at a school of rural or working youth or in a labor polytechnic school with industrial training, which was compulsory in the upper classes and, in the rural areas, was functioning in the form of pupil's pro - duction brigades. It was thanks to it that rural pupils of senior classes could receive the skills of work.

Thus, during 1953-1964, the development of school education in rural areas, despite major deficiencies (shortage of skilled personnel, reduction of hours devoted to humanity subjects, overloading most rural schools pupils with labor during industrial training, and divorcement of that labor from the curricula, the transformation of schools into powerful coordinators of ideological work), helped to solve one of the main tasks - overcome illiteracy among rural population gave them the opportunity to get further education in training colleges and agricultural higher educational institutions.

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