Teaching critical thinking in the ESL classroom at tertiary institution

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TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING IN THE ESL CLASSROOM AT TERTIARY INSTITUTION

Korotiaieva I.B., PhD in Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor,

Associate Professor of the Department of Germanic and Slavonic Linguistics

SHEI «Donbas State Pedagogical University»

The article is devoted to the problem of teaching critical thinking in the ESL classroom at language departments of tertiary institutions. In recent years, English language teaching has witnessed a great increase in the emphasis upon critical thinking skills development alongside language proficiency. The ultimate majority of English language teachers recognize the central role played by critical thinking in effective language pedagogy. The significance and value of critical thinking skills are thought of, at present, as being ones of social empowerment, enhanced communication, employability and networking. On the one hand, the most decisive point of the issue is that of simulating and enhancing student's capacity for critical thinking, promoting critical thinking skills across diverse social-cultural and educational contexts. On the other hand, it is that of teacher's ability to continually self-assess his/her own beliefs and methods in the classroom in order to enhance students' critical thinking skills. The purpose of the article is to review definitions of critical thinking; to consider the relevance of teaching critical thinking in the ESL classroom at tertiary institution; to illuminate the ways critical thinking has traditionally been used in English as second language and EFL instruction; to suggest practical activities for integrating critical thinking into language classrooms.

The main conclusion is that critical thinking is the essence of tertiary education. English teachers' classrooms goals come from a combination of an evaluation of the students' needs, as well as activities that reflect the teachers' educational philosophies, personal interests and personalities.

Keywords: critical thinking, problem solving, reflective thinking, ESL classroom, English language teacher, tertiary institution.

НАВЧАННЯ КРИТИЧНОГО МИСЛЕННЯ НА ЗАНЯТТЯХ З АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ У ЗАКЛАДАХ ВИЩОЇ ОСВІТИ

Коротяєва І.Б., кандидат педагогічних наук, доцент кафедри германської та слов'янської філології Донбаський державний педагогічний університет, вул. Г. Батюка, 19, Слов'янськ, Україна.

Стаття присвячена актуальній лінгводидактичній проблемі навчання критичного мислення на практичних заняттях з англійської мови студентів мовних спеціальностей закладів вищої освіти. Метою статті є аналіз і порівняння різних точок зору сучасних зарубіжних методистів і дослідників на зазначену проблему в контексті навчання іноземних мов. Розглядаються дефініції понять «критичне мислення» та «навички та вміння критичного мислення»; висвітлюються шляхи та способи навчання критичного мислення, що традиційно використовуються в зарубіжній методиці в навчанні англійської мови; пропонуються певні методичні рекомендації для викладачів англійської мови; наводяться приклади практичних видів діяльності та вправ різних типів (рецептивних, репродуктивних та продуктивних), що можуть використовуватися на практичних заняттях з англійської мови зі студентами І-ІІ курсів мовних спеціальностей; акцентується увага на їх ефективності та результативності. Основний висновок полягає в тому, що навчання вмінням критичного мислення повинно бути частиною програмних цілей і активно впроваджуватися в освітній процес сучасних закладів вищої освіти. Викладач англійської мови має брати до уваги різноманітні навчальні стратегії, методи та сучасні технології, щоб створити необхідну атмосферу формування іншомовної комунікативної компетенції через оволодіння навичками та вміннями критичного мислення, що розширює адаптаційні можливості студента, його автономію, особистісний потенціал і здатність до комунікативної імпровізації. Уміння критичного мислення (critical thinking) посідає центральне місце у списку так званих «умінь ХХІ століття» («the 4Cs of 21st century skills») поряд з уміннями спілкування (communication), співпраці (collaboration), творчих умінь (creativity).

Ключові слова: критичне мислення, вирішення проблем, рефлексивне мислення, практичне заняття з англійської мови, викладач англійської мови, заклад вищої освіти.

Problem statement

In recent years, English language teaching has witnessed a great increase in the emphasis upon critical thinking skills development alongside language proficiency. The ultimate majority of English language teachers recognize the central role played by critical thinking in effective language pedagogy. The significance and value of critical thinking skills are thought of at present as being ones of social empowerment, enhanced communication, employability and networking. On the one hand, the most decisive point of the issue is that of simulating and enhancing student's capacity for critical thinking, promoting critical thinking skills across diverse social-cultural and educational contexts. On the other hand, it is that of teacher's ability to continually self-assess his/her own beliefs and methods in the classroom in order to enhance students' critical thinking skills.

Since critical thinking is, at present, a part of curriculum goals and objectives, it should be included in the ESL classroom.

Overview of the recent researches and publications. Various aspects of the problem under discussion have been studied by many foreign educators, researchers and methodologists, in particular: L. Anderson, B. Beyer, B. Bloom, A. Chamot, S. Cottrell, D. Hill, J. Hughes, S. Norris, T. Wagner, D. Willingham and others.

Recent research indicates that team work, problem solving and critical thinking are essential skills that top the list of the most desired attributes for the 21^st century workplace, the teaching career in particular. Most of the research conducted drew attention to the fact that many higher education graduates lack capacity in specific professional areas. Therefore, higher educational institutions worldwide, universities and colleges, are interested in ensuring suitable adaptation and adjustment of their professional training systems in order to equip students with effective skills needed for successful professional careers in the 21^st century [5; 6; 7].

The English language classroom has an important place in these training systems and plays a key role in developing skills, including critical thinking also referred to as the skill of responsible thinking [4]. Foreign educators and researchers emphasize that language teachers' creative teaching approaches, methods, methodological and reflective skills can have positive and direct implications for influencing positive changes in the educational system at tertiary institutions [7; 9].

Purpose of the article is to review definitions of critical thinking; to consider the relevance of teaching critical thinking in the ESL classroom at tertiary institution; to illuminate the ways critical thinking has traditionally been used in English as second language and EFL instruction; to suggest practical activities for integrating critical thinking into language classrooms.

Research course

Critical thinking is a familiar educational term to most language teachers and methodologists, but it is worthwhile to investigate the various definitions of it. The term «critical thinking» first started emerging in academic circles and literature in the mid-twentieth century. Educators and academicians stressed that critical thinking referred to the search for evidence to support (or discredit) a belief or argument. Critical thinking has as its goal, the simulation of analytical and evaluative processes of the mind. Foreign educators suggest an inventory of critical thinking skills that can be developed in the classroom [2]:

Elementary Clarification

1. Focusing on a question

2. Analyzing arguments

3. Asking and answering questions that clarify and challenge

Basic Support

4. Judging the credibility of a source

5. Making and judging observations

Inference

6. Making and judging deductions

7. Making and judging inductions

8. Making and judging value judgments

Advanced Clarification

9. Defining terms and judging definitions

10. Identifying assumptions

Strategies and Tactics

11. Deciding on an action

12. Interacting with others

The following is Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom, et al., 1956), which gives a six-level classification of critical thinking. A person begins with level one and then progresses to level six working through the analytical thinking process to reach the final process of evaluation. This taxonomy suggests that a person who goes through steps one to six will arrive at an analytical evaluation and not reach an evaluation based on impulse, emotions or sensations.

Bloom's Taxonomy

1. Knowledge = Specific Facts

2. Comprehension = Understanding of facts

3. Application = Generalizing facts to other situations

4. Analysis = Breaking problems down, recognizing connections between subparts

5. Synthesis = Combining separate elements to form a coherent whole

6. Evaluation = Critically using information to make (reasonable) judgments [3, p. 9].

At the core of Bloom's taxonomy is a series of skills that teachers should developed in their learners in order to make their students learn more effectively. Over the years, many other educators have made efficient attempts to provide a set of sub-skills which take the learner from lower level thinking to a higher level thinking [1]:

Understanding.

When we read or listen to a text, we process it and then try to understand it. In our native language this is simply a case of knowing what we are reading, seeing or listening to. For the language learner doing this in a foreign language, this stage will of course take longer. The teacher might need to ask questions such as `What kind of text is it? Is it from a newspaper? Where would you read it?'.

Applying.

Having studied a text, we take the new information and apply it to something. In the language classroom this often means answering some comprehension questions or filling in a table with some facts or figures in the text. In other words, it is about task completion with the new information that we have understood.

Analysing.

The analysis stage is where we return to the text and start to question how the author's information is presented. For example, the students might have found information in the text but next we want them to find evidence supporting the main point(s). Often the task involves identifying how a text or its arguments are constructed. In other words, students are becoming more critical of the text and not accepting it at face value.

Evaluating.

Creating.

This is the last of the five sub-skills. Having studied a topic by drawing on a number of texts, students need to apply their new knowledge and to create something of their own out of it. For example, perhaps they are writing an essay expressing their own opinion but based on the facts and evidence they have researched. Or perhaps they do a group presentation with other students in which they present all the arguments for and against a view before then presenting their own conclusions.

A stairway of critical thinking.

The five sub-skills above can be represented as a set of linear steps or stairway progressing steadily upwards in order of difficulty and sophistication.

Such a model is helpful if we plan to design courses that will take students from one step to the next and so develop their critical thinking skills. However, it's important to remind ourselves that, in reality, learning especially when it involves learning a foreign language never runs quite so smoothly.

A student might read and understand a text, then start to apply or analyse, only to find that they have misunderstood something and have to return to the beginning. Equally, when students start to create a presentation or complete a project, they might find they need more information in support of their own main idea and so they have to return to their sources and re-evaluate them. However, the idea that these subskills are like five steps going upwards does provide us with a scaffold on which to create a clearer practical image of what goes towards making a Critical Thinker [7, p. 3-4]. critical thinking teaching skill

Nowadays, most English language teachers agree that communicative language tasks require critical thinking. Such tasks engage the student in authentic communication. The modern language classroom makes wide use of either authentic texts or real texts which have been adapted for the language level of the students. As soon as you present students with a text, in which the speaker or author expresses fact and opinion, students need to comprehend the meaning, analyze the facts, match the argument to the supporting evidence, and then express their own view in response to the text or to the problem. In other words, very soon while learning a language, students are also confronted by the need to approach texts critically [9; 10].

Foreign educators and methodologists suggest very interesting and useful practical activities for integrating critical thinking into language classrooms. Here are some vivid illustrations and examples of such activities which focus on using reading and listening texts and ways of developing receptive and productive critical thinking skills [7]:

Activity 1. A for-and-against essay

Critical thinking aim: To analyze the arguments for and against and to draw a conclusion. Language aim: To write a four or five paragraph forand-against essay.

Rationale.

After students have read or listened to texts on a topic and analysed the relevant points, they can synthesize their findings into an essay. Writing a for-and-against essay is the obvious choice and it reflects the kind of writing task that is found nowadays in examinations such Cambridge English and IELTS.

Procedure.

1. Think of a topic you have been studying in class recently and write a statement that will generate arguments both for and against. Here are some possible suggestions:

Sport: Sport in schools should be more competitive so that children learn about real life.

Do you agree?

Jobs and money: Parents should only pay pocket money if their children do jobs. Do you agree? Technology: The Internet is having a negative effect on people's social lives. Do you agree? Education: Living in another country is the best education you can receive. Do you agree?

Places: The countryside is a better place for young children to grow up in than a city. Do you agree? Animals: We should close down zoos and let animals go free. Do you agree?

2. Put students in groups and ask them to brainstorm lists of reasons or evidence supporting the arguments for or against the statement. On the board write this table and ask them to list their arguments below the + (for) and (against):

3. Groups should find a minimum of three arguments for both sides. The teacher can also collect ideas from each group at the end and write them on the board.

4. Next, students need to write their essays using the ideas in stage

They could write this alone or in groups. In order to ensure students follow a logical structure in their essay and that they learn to use phrases for structuring it, a teacher could give them a copy of the page below with the essay structure laid out. In paragraph one, students restate the statement. In paragraph two, they list their three arguments for and their three arguments against in paragraph three. Then in the final paragraph, they write their concluding opinion.

There are various arguments for and against the view that ...

One argument for is that ...

Another reason is that ...

Thirdly ...

On the other hand, there are arguments against. Firstly, ...

In addition to that, ...

Finally, .

So, on balance, I think that ...

Activity 2. Preparing a group presentation

Critical thinking aim: To bring together all the stages in critical thinking and apply relevant ideas into a presentation.

Language aim: To input the language of presenting.

Rationale

After students have read or listened to texts on a topic and analyzed the relevant points, they can apply their new knowledge and understanding by preparing a presentation. For example, perhaps they have been reading arguments for and against an opinion. Next, you can ask students to present the main arguments either for or against or you can ask one group to present the arguments for a point of view and another group to present the arguments against.

Procedure.

Students can present on their own, but working in groups is also a valuable learning process, so it is highly recommended. If students use slides to support their presentation, then make sure they summarize their main points in bullet form but without using too many words. As a general rule, have three bullet points per slide with no more than five words per line.

Students need time to prepare their presentations and to ensure that their presentations have a clear structure, you need to introduce some language for giving presentations. You could photocopy this checklist of useful phrases for students to follow. By using many of the expressions from each section, students will ensure that their presentation is planned and organized with a clear structure.

Introductions.

Today we're going to present ... / We're going to talk about the topic of .

My name's ... /Let me introduce everyone in our group. My name's ... and this is ... We're each going to talk about different parts of the topic.

The structure of the presentation

Then, we're going to present ...

Next, we'll look at ...

Moving from one point to the next Point one is about ...

Balancing arguments for and against First of all, here are some of the arguments for ...

Next we'd like to present some of the arguments against ...

One argument for ... is that ...

However, the argument against is that ...

Summing up and concluding

In conclusion ... / On balance, we think ...

Ending the presentation and inviting questions That's the end of our presentation.

Thank you for listening. / Are there any questions?

We'd be happy to take your questions.

Activity 3 Assessing a presentation.

Critical thinking aim: To assess the arguments and opinions presented. Language aim: To assess the language used in the presentation.

Rationale.

When students give their presentations, the teacher wants other students in the class to participate actively as an audience and to consider the effectiveness of the arguments. One way to do this is to give students who are listening a feedback form to fill in as they do so.

Procedure.

Give students in the audience a copy of this feedback form (or adapt it according to your needs and context) or you could use such a form to give your own feedback.

Feedback form.

The content of the presentation.

In relation to reading, students analyze, evaluate, reflect, demonstrate open-mindedness, link ideas to wider field of study, recognize bias, identify main ideas, details, infer, and estimate. In relation to listening, students reflect, evaluate, demonstrate open-mindedness, link to wider field of study, identify main ideas, paraphrase, summarize. In relation to writing, students write research, source information, report, reflective journals, portfolios, paraphrase, summarize, evaluate evidence, link to wider field of study. In relation to speaking, students debate, discuss, argue and promote higher order questions, report, present, link to wider field of study.

Conclusions and perspectives of further research

There is a lot of interest and valuable implementation of critical thinking teaching already taking place in the ESL classroom, and the majority of English language teachers recognize the central role played by critical thinking in effective foreign language teaching and pedagogy. Encouraging critical thinking in the ESL classroom will promote the achievement of the following goals:

1) Students will increase their use of higher-level thinking skills in English, including analysis, synthesis, evaluation and appreciation.

2) Students will be able to evaluate their own and others' language, experience and ideas (self-evaluation, peer-evaluation, etc.).

3) Students will be able to produce original language to express their ideas and feelings.

4) Students will develop study skills for autonomous, lifelong language learning.

Critical thinking is the essence of tertiary education. English teachers' classrooms goals come from a combination of an evaluation of the students' needs, as well as activities that reflect the teachers' educational philosophies, personal interests and personalities. Every English language teacher must decide on the activities and amount of time spent on teaching critical thinking and language learning skills for his or her class.

Fostering a perspective of renewed commitment to teaching critical thinking skills in line with a functional and communicative languagelearning environment enhances students' chances of success in both their studies and potentially their professional career.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that there is a need for targeted professional development for English teachers in the area of critical thinking that will include a theoretical foundation, reinforcement of the basic principles of critical thinking and practical examples that teachers can utilize in the ESL classroom.

Literature

1. Anderson L.W. & Krathwohl D.R. (Eds) A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman, 2000. 333 p.

2. Beyer B. Practical strategies for the direct teaching of thinking skills / A. Costa (Ed.), Developing minds: A resource book for teaching thinking: Vol. l, 2nd ed. 1991. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. PP. 274-279.

3. Bloom B. S., Englehart M. B., Furst E. J., Hill W. H., & Kratwohl O. R. Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: The cognitive domain. New York: Longman, 1956.

4. Chamot A. Creating a community of thinkers in the ESL/EFL classroom. TESOL Matters, 1995. 5,(5), 1,16.

5. Cottrell S. Critical Thinking Skills. Palgrave Macmillan; 2nd edition, 2011. 296 p.

6. Hill D. Student Essentials: Critical Thinking. Trotman; UK ed. edition, 2011. 112 p.

7. Hughes J. Critical Thinking in the Language Classroom. ELi, 2014. 28 p.

8. Reid S. Teaching critical thinking. CELE Journal, 1998. 6. PP. 17-22.

9. Vdovina E., & Gaibisso L. C. Developing critical thinking in the English language classroom: A lesson plan. ELTA Journal, December 2013, i(1), 54-68. Retrieved 2021, November 13 from http:// eltajournal.org.rs/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/ VII-Developing-CriticalThinking-in-the-English-Language-classroom.pdf.

10. Willingham D. T. Critical Thinking: Why Is It So Hard to Teach? Arts Education Policy Review, 2008, 109:4, 21-32, DOI: 10.3200/AEPR. 109.4.21 -32.

Referenses

1. Anderson L.W. & Krathwohl D.R. (Eds) A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman, 2000. 333 p.

2. Beyer B. Practical strategies for the direct teaching of thinking skills / A. Costa (Ed.), Developing minds: A resource book for teaching thinking: Vol. l, 2nd ed. 1991. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. PP. 274-279.

3. Bloom B. S., Englehart M. B., Furst E. J., Hill W. H., & Kratwohl O. R. Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: The cognitive domain. New York: Longman, 1956.

4. Chamot A. Creating a community of thinkers in the ESL/EFL classroom. TESOL Matters, 1995. 5,(5), 1,16.

5. Cottrell S. Critical Thinking Skills. Palgrave Macmillan; 2nd edition, 2011. 296 p.

6. Hill D. Student Essentials: Critical Thinking. Trotman; UK ed. edition, 2011. 112 p.

7. Hughes J. Critical Thinking in the Language Classroom. ELi, 2014. 28 p.

8. Reid S. Teaching critical thinking. CELE Journal, 1998. 6. PP. 17-22.

9. Vdovina E., & Gaibisso L. C. Developing critical thinking in the English language classroom: A lesson plan. ELTA Journal, December 2013, i(1), 54-68. Retrieved 2021, November 13 from http:// eltajournal.org.rs/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/ VII-Developing-CriticalThinking-in-the-English-Language-classroom.pdf.

10. Willingham D. T. Critical Thinking: Why Is It So Hard to Teach? Arts Education Policy Review, 2008, 109:4, 21-32, DOI: 10.3200/AEPR. 109.4.21 -32.

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