Teaching critical thinking: theoretical and practical backgrounds (Ukrainian and foreign experience)
Analysis of the theoretical and practical backgrounds for teaching critical thinking, taking into account the Ukrainian and foreign experience of scientists. Non-linguistic university students’ critical thinking formation in Foreign Language classes.
| Рубрика | Педагогика |
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| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 16.06.2024 |
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Kherson State Agrarian and Economic University
TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING: THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL BACKGROUNDS (UKRAINIAN AND FOREIGN EXPERIENCE)
Sovach Kateryna Olehivna Senior Lecturer
at the Department of Public Administration,
Law and Humanities
Kropyvnytskyi
Abstract
critical thinking teaching foreign
The subject of the paper is the theoretical and practical backgrounds for teaching critical thinking in institutions of higher education. The purpose of the study is to systematize and analyze the theoretical and practical backgrounds for teaching critical thinking, taking into account the Ukrainian and foreign experience of scientists. This paper is organized as follows: the first part - clarification of the essence of critical thinking, the second one - foreign experience and the third section is domestic experience with a focus on non-linguistic university students' critical thinking formation in Foreign Language classes.
The topicality of the article is caused by the necessity to analyze and synthesize the scientific achievements of two groups of scientists (domestic and foreign) in this field to outline certain strategies that can contribute to institutions of higher education students' development of critical thinking in general and non-linguistic university students' in particular, namely: making time for metacognitive reflection, teaching reasoning skills, asking openended questions, teaching information literacy, providing diverse perspectives, practicing makes perfect.
It has been stated that it is possible to develop students' critical thinking while studying any discipline in general and any type of speech activity (reading, writing, speaking, listening), including. Both foreign and domestic scientists emphasize the complex nature of critical thinking as a whole and its separate components in particular as thinking critically means freely using high-level mental strategies and operations (analysis, assessment, creativity) to formulate well-founded conclusions and make decisions.
Future work will concentrate on outlining the possible options for building lessons with the development of critical thinking, the case study being English-language textbooks, which are provided by the academic programs of the discipline “Foreign language for specific purposes” at Kherson State Agrarian and Economic University.
Keywords: critical thinking, domestic and foreign experience, foreign language, reflection, assessment, methods of developing critical thinking, nonlinguistic university, creative thinking.
Анотація
Совач Катерина Олегівна старший викладач кафедри публічного управління, права та гуманітарних наук, Херсонський державний аграрноекономічний університет, м. Кропивницький,
НАВЧАННЯ КРИТИЧНОГО МИСЛЕННЯ: ТЕОРЕТИЧНІ ТА ПРАКТИЧНІ ПЕРЕДУМОВИ (УКРАЇНСЬКИЙ ТА ЗАКОРДОННИЙ ДОСВІД)
Предметом статті постають теоретичні та практичні передумови навчання критичного мислення у закладах вищої освіти. Мета дослідження - систематизувати та проаналізувати теоретичні та практичні передумови навчання критичного мислення, враховуючи український та закордонний досвід науковців. Стаття структурована у такий спосіб: перша частина - з'ясування сутності критичного мислення, друга частина - закордонний досвід та третя частина - вітчизняний досвід з фокусом уваги на формування критичного мислення у здобувачів немовних закладів освіти на заняттях з іноземної мови.
Актуальність дослідження спричинена необхідністю аналізу та синтезу наукових напрацювань двох груп учених (вітчизняних і закордонних) у цій сфері задля окреслення певних стратегій, які можуть посприяти розвитку критичного мислення у здобувачів вищих навчальних закладів загалом і нефілологічних зокрема, а саме: пошук часу для метакогнітивної рефлексії, навчання навичок міркування, постановка відкритих запитань, навчання інформаційної грамотності, навчання висловлювань різноманітних точок зору, практичний аспект.
У статті зазначено, що розвивати критичне мислення у здобувачів можна під час вивчення будь-якої дисципліни в цілому та будь-якого з видів мовленнєвої діяльності (читання, письмо, говоріння, аудіювання) в тому числі. І закордонні, і вітчизняні науковці підкреслюють комплексний характер критичного мислення загалом і окремих його компонентів зокрема, адже мислити критично означає вільно використовувати розумові стратегії та операції високого рівня (аналіз, оцінка, творчість) для формулювання обґрунтованих висновків і прийняття рішень.
Перспективним вбачаємо висвітлення можливих варіантів побудови занять з розвитком критичного мислення на матеріалі англомовних підручників, які передбачені робочими програмами з дисципліни «Іноземна мова за професійним спрямуванням» у Херсонському державному аграрно-економічному університеті.
Ключові слова: критичне мислення, вітчизняний та закордонний досвід, іноземна мова, рефлексія, оцінка, методи розвитку критичного мислення, немовні заклади вищої освіти, творче мислення.
Defining the problem and argumentation of the topicality of its consideration
Every foreign language teacher strives to develop creative atmosphere and spiritual freedom in classes. Therefore, it is necessary for the teacher to pay attention to the way of setting up the educational process so that students have the opportunity to express their fantasy and imagination, conduct analysis, comparison, and specification as well. In other words, it is necessary to develop students' creative thinking. But it is extremely difficult to motivate modern youth to cognitive activity as young people have difficulties in perceiving educational material. The reason for this is the insufficiently high level of development of thinking and, above all, critical thinking. And this is very important for a person in the modern world.
For a long time, it was believed that critical thinking is necessary only when studying technical and natural disciplines. In the humanitarian sphere the introduction of these technologies was considered impossible and in connection with this a number of problems arose in the study of these approaches and the development of practical mechanisms for the implementation of tasks. But the study of humanitarian disciplines is completely compatible with the development of critical thinking. And teaching foreign languages for special purposes also requires a change in approaches. R. Paziak believes that the introduction of critical thinking development technologies can significantly increase students' interest in learning, improving learning efficiency, and developing students' creative and analytical abilities [1, P. 28]. The rapid development of technologies requires students not only master new sets of knowledge and abilities/skills, but also assess the results and consequences of their own actions and behaviour constantly.
Previous Research in the Area
Critical thinking has received much attention over the last two decades and it is in the center of attention of both domestic and foreign scientists. A. Konverskyi's textbook, for example, introduces the definition of logic as a science, the concept of critical thinking; it reveals logical operations on concepts, gives logical characteristics of judgment, proves the theory of inference, determines the ratio of argumentation and logical substantiation of knowledge as well [2].
O. Tiahlo focuses on two sides of successful problem solving of correct thinking, creative thinking in individual solution as well as creativity in collective problem solving [3]. Technologies for the development of students' critical thinking are described in the educational and methodological manual for teachers of general educational institutions [4]. Critical thinking is independent thinking, according to I. Batrun, so independence is the most important characteristic of critical thinking [5]. Among foreign researchers the principles of developing critical thinking are thoroughly formulated by L. Anderson and D. Krathwohl [6].
Critical thinking has become a central issue in highlighting pedagogical conditions for the formation of critical thinking in History, Ukrainian and English languages classes [7; 8; 9] as using critical thinking skills students can operate the intellectual tools critical thinking offers - concepts and principles allowing them to analyze, assess and improve their thinking process.
The aim of our work is to systematize and analyze the theoretical and practical backgrounds for teaching critical thinking with an emphasis on Ukrainian and foreign experience. This paper begins by clarifying the essence of critical thinking. The next chapter examines the foreign experience in this field. Domestic experience with a focus on non-linguistic university students' critical thinking formation in Foreign Language classes is discussed in the third section.
Results and Discussion. Critical thinking: the essence of the concept
Yu. Skoryk, analyzing the historical development of the problem of a person's critical thinking, claims that “the idea of developing critical thinking as a scientific approach to solving a wide range of problems belongs to American psychologists of the 20th century, William James and John Dewey [10]” [11]. The essence of critical thinking, according to psychologists, is a detailed mental analysis that precedes actions [10].
A recent review of the literature on this matter found that there are many different opinions about the concept of “critical thinking”. On the one hand, it is associated with something negative, as it implies a dispute, conflict, and, on the other hand, it is combined with such concepts as “analytical thinking”, “logical thinking” and “creative thinking” as well. In scientific sources you can find many various definitions of this term: “critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them” [12]; “critical thinking is the process of thinking carefully about a subject or idea, without allowing feelings or opinions to affect you” [13]; “critical thinking is defined as the mental process of actively and skillfully perception, analysis, synthesis and assessment of collected information through observation, experience and communication that leads to a decision for action” [14]; “critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, selfmonitored and self-corrective; it is an interactive process, one that demands participation on the part of teacher and students alike” [15, P. 9].
Foreign experience. According to a survey conducted in 2007-2008 among university teachers on the teaching of critical thinking by the UCLA Higher Education Research Institute, almost one hundred percent proved “that critical thinking is an “very important” or “essential” goal for undergraduate education” [16]. But the question arose: in what way critical thinking should be taught. Accordingly, two related questions occurred: “Should critical thinking be taught as a separate subject on its own, or should it be taught in combination with other specific subjects that the students are studying? Which are the topics that are most crucial? How useful are lessons in formal logic or Venn diagrams? How should we go about designing a curriculum?” [16].
B. Hooks states that critical thinking does not merely put down demands on students, it is also necessary for teachers to show by their own examples “that learning in action means that not all of us can be right all the time, and that the shape of knowledge is constantly changing” [15, P. 10].
The most enthralling aspect of critical thinking in the classroom is that initiative must be taken by everyone. All students must be initiated to have an intense thought and exchange concepts in an ardent and transparent way. When both, teacher and students, recognize that they are in charge of establishing a collaborative learning community, teaching/learning can be significant and practical. “In such a community of learning there is no failure. Everyone is participating and sharing whatever resource is needed at a given moment in time to ensure that we leave the classroom knowing that critical thinking empowers us” [15, P. 11].
N. Provenzano points out the deep connection of critical thinking with active learning [17]. He suggests a lot of captivating ways for students to strengthen the critical thinking skills:
- making time for metacognitive reflection;
- teaching reasoning skills;
- asking open-ended questions;
- teaching information literacy;
- providing diverse perspectives;
- practicing makes perfect [17].
We will consider in detail each of the ways of strengthening critical thinking to reveal its essence, firstly, and secondly, we will describe some recommendations to teachers who, using certain strategies, will be able to promote the development of students' critical thinking.
Making time for metacognitive reflection. Critical thinking is reflective, and assessed; it occurs by applying new information to one's own experience. In this vein, N. Provenzano recommends giving students the freedom to think about their ideas, showing them how they can use their own thinking to analyze and doubt their assumptions. Three questions (“Why is this the best answer? What information supports my answer? What can someone say with a counterargument?) become key in the process of self-analysis of knowledge and actions, their meanings and limits. In a fast-paced world, it's important to help students understand that it's ordinary to take a breath and think about the ideas before putting them out into the world. Also, time for reflection helps us to consider the ideas of others more carefully [17].
Teaching reasoning skills. Reasoning skills, in other terms, critical thinking skills are analysis, assessment and synthesis. One of the ways of teaching reasoning skills is to use problem-solving activities that require students to apply their skills in practical contexts, that is, to give students a real problem to solve to find an adequate solution.
Asking open-ended questions. “Open-ended questions are freeform survey questions allowing and encouraging respondents to answer in open-text format to answer based on their complete knowledge, feeling, and understanding” [18]. The detailed response to this question is not limited to a set of options. When we ask open-ended questions, we create a space for classroom discussion that includes diverse, perhaps, opposing ideas as the basis for rich exchange supporting deep thinking and analysis. For example, two open-ended questions (How would you solve this problem? and What resources would you need to do this?) encourage students to think less about the “right” answer, i.e. providing simple “yes” or “no” answers, and more about the variety of solutions, which may already exist. Students can keep certain entries in notebooks; it can be a written problem-solving plan that helps them organize their thoughts. After discussions and conversations in small groups, students feel that they can be heard, encouraged and able to participate in a constructive conversation on any topic [17].
Teaching information literacy. “Information literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning” [19]. Realizing what resource is reliable or unreliable and knowing how to fact-check information are important skills that students must develop and use when making reasoned decisions. Students can be offered the following types of tasks: searching for sources of information for a specific need using various search tools and using lateral reading strategies to assess the credibility of one or more sources of information.
Allowing students to create their own falsified information can help them better identify it in other contexts. In this regard, in our opinion, some strategies for detecting bias become relevant:
1. Source analysis: think about its author or publisher; does it have an agenda or bias that might influence the information presented?
2. Language analysis: the loaded language uses emotionally charged words to persuade the reader to accept a certain point of view; beware of overly emotional or inflammatory statements.
3. Fact-checking: check the facts provided by the source; evidence is stronger than personal opinion.
4. Finding missing information: examine if the source is missing information that might contradict its point of view or provide a more complete picture of the topic.
5. Comparing multiple sources: look for other sources to see if they present a different point of view or if they contradict the information presented in your primary source.
6. Tone analysis: look over if the tone of the source objective or subjective; if the tone is subjective, then most likely the source presents a biased point of view.
7. Thoughts about your own biases: be aware of your own biases and prejudices that may influence your interpretation of the information presented.
By using these strategies, students will be able to detect bias better and make more rational decisions.
Providing diverse perspectives. Obviously, there are always students in a group who may not share the viewpoints of others. They may feel uncomfortable and unwilling to express their thoughts. To avoid this, the teacher can use primary sources when discussing current events: YouTube videos, essays and articles written by people who have experienced current events, documentaries that deeply immerse students in various topics, on the one hand, and require discussion and expression different opinions on this matter, on the other hand [17].
Practicing makes perfect. Teachers and students should realize that critical thinking does not just happen; its development requires consistency and dedication. This means that critical thinking should be taught and developed in all classes, mathematics, economics, foreign language, history, for instance as every discipline requires students to consider something carefully and find the best solution. These skills can be spread by involving students in individual or group project activities or identifying misinformation or unsubstantiated arguments.
Ukrainian experience. Domestic researchers of critical thinking today appeal in most cases with questions of the theory and practice of developing critical thinking in the didactic area to invent real pedagogical models that can be immediately introduced into the educational process of schools and institutions of higher education. Among Ukrainian scholars of critical thinking, as noted by O. Pometun, there are those “who show how critical thinking can be taught in various content fields, such as reading, literature, social studies, mathematics and natural science. Critical thinking is best formed when students work with the exact content; it can't be only taught as a separate set of abilities/skills” [20, P. 92].
O. Pometun resorts to her own definition of critical thinking, summarizing its basic characteristics and elements: “critical thinking can be defined as a separate type of thinking, which is distinguished by activity, purposefulness, independence, discipline, and reflexivity. It involves the development in the process of teaching of a person's ability to: identify problems, analyze, synthesize, assess information from any sources, put forward alternatives and evaluate them, choose a way to solve a problem or one's own position in relation to it and justify one's views, make a conscious choice and act” [20, P. 94].
The scholar insists that pedagogy in general takes into account the cognitive, emotional, value and behavioural aspects of critical thinking and makes it possible to ensure appropriate pedagogical influences [20, P. 94]: clear planning of expected teaching outcomes, organization of active learning/ teaching, emotional stimuli, cooperative learning, high-level questions, regulation and control of results, etc. Unlike the viewpoints of foreign researchers who believe that critical thinking should be taught and developed in all classes, Ukrainian teachers are of the opinion that “critical thinking and its components can be taught as a separate subject, they are formed and used best in related to a specific field of knowledge (for example, mathematics or history, etc.)” [20, P. 95].
N. Kharchenko prefers educational clusters of critical thinking, that is, systematized and generalized information on various aspects of the development of critical thinking in diagrams and tables [21, Р. 2]. The scholar believes that the cluster is one of the methods of developing critical thinking, so she recommends using it when working with students. A cluster is a reflection of a non-linear form of thinking. Graphic design of information in classes (trainings, scientific groups, etc.) is an effective tool in the work of the teacher for the development of students' critical thinking [21, Р. 2]. Some foreign colleagues hold the same opinion [22].
Let's focus our attention on non-linguistic university students' critical thinking formation in Foreign Language classes. A. Paziak maintains that “any of the types of speech activity (reading, writing, speaking, listening) can be used to develop critical thinking skills” [1, P. 30].
Foreign language teachers in non-linguistic institutions of higher education of Ukraine consider the most popular method of developing critical thinking to be “K-W-L” tables, in which students independently answer the following questions: 1. What do you Know about the topic?; 2. What do you Want to know?; 3. What have you Learned? [23, P. 102]. By providing answers to these questions (in written or oral form), students learn to classify information in their minds, analyze sources of information, arrange the studied material logically, and answer the questions clearly.
The interactive system of putting down while reading the text promotes the formation of critical thinking too. It can be used quite often in Foreign Language classes of non-linguistic universities, since students work with professional texts in various formats. The essence of this method is that while reading students mark words they knew before as well as words and expressions that are new to them.
Such careful reading of texts helps to highlight the most important, to understand the logic of the text, to draw attention to new terms and concepts, which in turn provides a deeper understanding of what has been read. At the reflection stage, the teacher can offer students the following tasks: writing various types of argumentative essays on a recently studied topic; creating conceptual tables in which students can compare three or more aspects of one or another studied scientific problem; discussions, expressing one's point of view, etc.
Applying methods of analysis and synthesis, we believe that the algorithm for critical thinking formation on the example of reading can be presented in the following way:
- looking through the title of the text, trying to determine what the main content of the text is, compiling a mini-dictionary of words that students know within this topic;
- the first reading of the text in fast mode, without paying attention to unfamiliar words or expressions;
- answers to general questions: describe, define, recall, tell where, when, what, etc.;
- the second reading of the text with the task of understanding the details (if necessary, you can resort to the translation of the entire text or some of its complex passages);
- asking questions to understand details, the meaning of certain expressions or professional terms (describe in your own words, explain how you understand, compare, correlate);
- performing exercises focused on the use of acquired knowledge (discussion of questions such as where the information from the text can be used in real life, in what way this information can be useful to students; the next step - exercises on the analysis or structure of the text, or the order of presentation of the material, drawing up a plan of the text or schemes and formulas for the construction of separate lexical units or analytical grammatical structures);
- assessment of the material of the text - whether it is informative, interesting, instructive, etc.;
- creative component - reproduction of acquired skills in dialogic/ monological speech.
We are sure that such a scheme of working on the text, if used in every Foreign Language class, covers memorization, understanding, application as critical thinking skills, which gradually turn into analysis, assessment and creativity.
Conclusions and perspectives
This paper, to our mind, has highlighted the importance of students' critical thinking formation. Both foreign and domestic scientists emphasize the complex nature of critical thinking in general and its certain components in particular as thinking critically means freely using high-level mental strategies and operations to formulate well-founded conclusions and make decisions.
Both groups of scientists agree that the learning process should include solving real problems and making decisions by students in various situations. Critical thinking is a special type of mental activity, the characteristic features of which are the development of decision-making strategies in solving tasks and problem situations based on obtaining and processing information; implementation of reflexive actions (analytical, controlled, assessed) regarding any object or phenomenon, one's own thinking process in particular; balanced analysis of different opinions and views, identification of one's own position, objective assessment of the results of both one's own and outside activities.
Scholars of both groups prefer the cluster (graphic) form of organization and presentation of information. What remains clear is that critical thinking is always dialogic, that is, it involves discussions, particularly among students, in which criteria are put forward, contexts are identified and discussed, and the thinking process is assessed generally.
Foreign experts are focused on the practical aspect of implementing critical thinking training in all classes as every subject requires students' careful considering something and finding the best solution. Ukrainian scientists sometimes pay attention to specific disciplines, such as mathematics, history, and a foreign language.
In our view these results constitute an excellent initial step toward outlining the possible options for building lessons with the development of critical thinking, the case study being English-language textbooks, which are provided by the academic programs of the discipline “Foreign language for specific purposes” at Kherson State Agrarian and Economic University.
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