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FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

FOR HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

Faculty of Communications, Media, and Design

Bachelor's programme `Journalism'

Bachelor thesis

Political endorsements of hip-hop artists in US (2004)

Nadezhda Ivanova

Moscow, 2019

Table of Content

Introduction

1. Celebrities as a Part of Political Processes in US

1.2 The Impact of Celebrity Endorsements on Voter's Behaviour

2. The Hip-Hop Artists Endorsement of Political Candidates

2.1 The Relationships Between Hip-Hop Artists and the Authorities

Introduction

Relevancy. The political endorsements have always been presented in the political field in US. However, an increasing number of modern days celebrities in America are becoming politically active, boosting the efficiency or political campaigns and influencing electorate's behavior. The line between politics and entertainment has blurred, turning presidential campaigns into a form of mass spectacle: presidential candidates show their best dance moves at late-night TV shows, make friendships with celebrities and make tabloids and social media obsessed about their private lives. The elections in 2008 might seem as the triumph of celebrity politics with Barack Obama as their star. Obama used the ubiquitous power of new media, entertainment and Hip-Hop to his advantage to gain potential voters. He has been supported by different kind of celebrities: Beyoncй, Oprah Winfrey, Stevie Wonder, Justin Bieber, Ellen DeGeneres and many more. It is noteworthy that Obama got bilateral support from Hip-Hop artists: rappers endorsed Obama through their activism and music; Obama, in turn, expressed his love for Hip-Hop music and hosted black rappers in the White House for the first time in history.

After all these years of being politically oriented, confronting unfair social conditions, racial discrimination and violence that comes from authorities, Rap is finally breaking through the neighborhood and taking over the global music industry. In 2017, for the first time in history, Hip-Hop/Rap became the most consumed music genre in the US Nielsen Music. (2018, January 3). 2017 U.S. Music Year-End Report.. The popularity of Hip-Hop affected such large-scale event as the presidential elections.

Since Obama's presidential campaign American rappers have unveiled their political voice. We can claim, that Hip-Hop music has traditionally been considered as a marginal culture commonly associated with criminal activities. But nowadays politicians realize the potential impact of popular Rap artists and make partnership with them. 8 years after Obama's celebrity campaign, in 2016 Hillary Clinton used the same promotional tactics, reinforcing the engagement with Hip-Hop in an attempt to maintain the African-American young voters that brought Obama to the office.

In this research I'm going to examine political endorsements of Hip-Hop artists in the US through their socio-political activism, social media activity, participation in presidential campaigns and the ways that artists used their music in an attempt to embrace political messages. As the Presidential elections of 2008 was the first time when political forces officially involved rappers in campaigns, in this research I'll examine the difference between endorsements in 2008-2016 campaigns in comparison with 2004 campaign. Moreover, I'll study the political activism of Hip-Hop artists by the cases of confrontations with authorities. I'll define how has changed the nature of political endorsements made by African-American rappers and which issues they have been appealed to.

The purpose of this research is to explore the political endorsements of Hip-Hop artists in the US, their socio-political activism and participation in presidential campaigns. In accordance with the research purpose, we distinguished the following objectives:

Methods: discourse analysis methodology. In this research I'll mostly refer to scientist Teun van Dijk's critical discourse methodology, described in his work “Discourse and Power” (2008). The book is devoted to the description of the discursive nature of power relations in modern society. I'll use the discourse analysis to explore the Hip-Hop artists' participation in Presidential campaigns in USA - their endorsing statements in media, events they visited and songs they made to support certain candidate. Van Dijk also turns to the consideration of racism, ethnic and racial stereotypes, what corresponds to the object of my research. In this research I'm going to use discourse analysis methodology to explore the activism of Rap artists through music and statements they made.

Case study. In this research I'll study certain cases that caused Hip-Hop artists' activity, such as police brutality against African-Americans, 9/11 and the hurricane Katrina.

Empirical base. Theoretical basis, my 3rd year term paper The Reflection of the Socio-political Context in Contemporary American Black Music, 1980s-2010s, songs' lyrics (Genious.com), official reports, interviews with Hip-Hop artists.

1. Celebrities as a Part of Political Processes in US

Politics and celebrity culture have been tightly intertwined since the early 20th century. Historians found the trail of celebrities in politics in 1920, when presidential candidate Warren Harding was endorsed by famous actors Mary Pickford and Al Jolson Morello, John A. (2001). Selling the President, 1920. Westport, CT: Praeger. Since then many presidential candidates involved celebrities to their campaigns: John F. Kennedy was actively supported by his good friends from “Rat Pack”, and Ronald Reagan received support from Frank Sinatra and many other celebrities Adamowski, Thomas H. (2004). “Frank Sinatra: The Subject and His Music,” 33 Journal of Popular Culture.. To understand why politicians choose celebrities as an embodiment of their beliefs, we need to look at the establishment of the phenomenon “celebrity” and its power.

Nowadays term “celebrity” is used to characterize individuals who are produced by modern discursive and economic practices, and who are recognizable to a large part of the society Marshall, P. D., & Redmond, S. (2016). A Companion to Celebrity. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell.. American film historian Richard Schickel defined celebrity as a 20th century invention, formed from publicity hype and financial overvaluation of movie stars Schickel, Richard (1985) Intimate Strangers:The Culture of Celebrity. New York: Doubleday.. American publicist Daniel Boorstin perceived celebrities much simpler: he characterized celebrity as “a person who is known for his well-knowness” Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (New York:

Atheneum, 1975). According to these definitions, celebrities have vain nature: they are famous because of the wide promotion. However, celebrity culture arose way before mass media era. Celebrity's genesis is connected to a period when social class system has been experiencing an irreversible transformation. Professor and writer Stephen Gundle in his book Glamour: A History (2008) points that the courtesans in the 19th century is one of the markers of the aristocracy's decadence and the birth of a new industrial class freed from previous social constructions. Gundle, S. (2008) Glamour: a History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.78. Many scientists argue that the cradle of celebrity culture, where fascination with actors took public forms, was theatre - the key place of public events in 19th century that turned European actors, dancers, writers and fashion icons, for example Sarah Bernhardt and Beau Brummell, into new elite. The professor of cultural studies Fred Inglis claims that Lord Byron was one of the first modern celebrities, whose glamorous and scandalous lifestyle attracted the public Inglis, Fred (2010) A ShortHistory of Celebrity. Princeton: Princeton University Press..

Despite the differences, many definitions of celebrity status share two fundamentals: the fame of celebrities is not always tied to significant accomplishments and the measure of celebrities' success dependent on the rise of mass media. However, over time the image of celebrity reveals not only commonalities but also noticeable changes, making the concept rather unstable. In 20th century, the emergence of cinematography and its system of selling the construction of celebrity - “the motion picture star” - erased the significance of famous person's accomplishments and the line between private and public. Especially looking at today's world, we can claim that the private life of the celebrity or its activity outside the work sphere overtook professional accomplishments. And the audience gladly accepts this.

Since the renaissance of motion picture industry, film companies have been using actors who were of interest to the public to promotional needs. In 1910 the Independent Moving Pictures Company accused another film company in spreading rumours that actress Florence Lawrence she was hit by a car in Missouri deCordova, Richard (1990) Picture Personalities: The Emergence of the Star System in

America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.. Later it turned out that it was Carl Laemmle - Independent Moving Pictures Company's head - who planted the news item to make Lawrence more noticeable in media. After stoking the scandal, he organized public appearance with Lawrence to prove that she was safe and sound. However, at the beginning the industry have been using rumours very cautiously - they didn't offer details about actors' private lives. Professor Richard deCordova in his book Picture Personalities (1990) claims: “The player's identity was restricted to the textuality of the films she or he was in. Even the articles that promised to reveal what the players were really like merely reproduced the representations of personality already produced in films. Differences between actor and character were to a large degree disavowed” Ibid.. Such approach was problematic because of the rapid schedule of cinema production. The huge number of roles demanded from actors an ability to be universal to play “hundreds of roles” Bowser, Eileen (1990)The Transformation of Cinema, 1907-1915. New York: Scribner's.. Film makers changed their tactics and started promoting actors as a unified and unique personality with a complex character, what helped the actors to be more than roles.

By 1912, leading film celebrities in magazines were called “stars” more often than “picture personalities”. Magazines like Motion Picture Story Magazine founded fandom institution, appealing to viewers as “fans” and letting them to participate in the process of constructing the stars. Magazines about film stars created sections in which they were publishing fans' letters to actors or even poems Ibid.. Readers could praise or criticize actors' performances in films. Personal appearances by film stars at organized public events encouraged the idea that the audience could have access to the famous actors beyond the screen frames. Magazines and cinema theatres offered souvenir photographic postcards with leading actors. Because of the fame that celebrity has been carrying, with its certain associations and myths, it became effective to use celebrities in advertisement. Instead of using persuasive product description, it was much easier just to put celebrity's image in the ad to transfer certain meanings and associations to the consumers. Well-known actresses were posing in advertisements of cosmetics in magazines aimed at female readers like Ladies' Home and Journal Ladies' World. For example, movie star Mary Pickford became the face of Pompeian Night Cream in 1916. Some of her appreciative fans were using her large advertising portraits as a decor element. Also, comparing to stage actors, who physically were in distance to the audience, movie actors seemed closer due to closer camera positions. That also demanded a more natural style of acting, what caused sort of intimacy with actors and empathy. Such high level of movie stars' publicity exceeded the frames of the screen and brought fans into a different kind of relationship with celebrities. Moreover, the motion picture industry learned that the financial success is attached to the young, whether we talk about young celebrities or young fans. American movie director Thomas H. Ince claimed: “The screen screams for youth. It clamors for the unlined face. It demands that middle age and maturity should stand aside when its stars are being made” Ince, Thomas H. (1918) “The star is here to stay.” Munsey's Magazine, Nov.. In the Chapter 1.1 we'll examine research that lately proved this hypothesis.

The professor of Film & Media Studies and publicist Gaylyn Studlar in the book A Companion to Celebrity (2016) made a conclusion about celebrities in silent film era: “Fan magazines suggested that Hollywood's model of celebrity success was democratic. It was not reserved for those of deep pockets, experience or education. It spoke to the youth of all classes - as long as they were white. Fan magazines made the possibility of celebrity for women one of the driving themes of fan culture. If Clara Bow, a poor girl from Brooklyn, could submit her photo in a contest, win a trip to Hollywood, and become a star, why not other fans, other girls?” Marshall, P. D., & Redmond, S. (2016). A Companion to Celebrity. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell..

Soon celebrities started playing a key role in the organization of the social and even political processes. The genealogy of politically active celebrity has 2 main elements that changes discourses linked to power. First, ever since 19th century celebrities made possible the production diversity in society. Celebrities represent the significance of individuality that substitutes the significance of class and status. The second element: celebrity identifies the discourse of recognition and authority and develops contemporary system of values.

Modern celebrities (not only film actors anymore) have the extended influence on publicity that is beyond their primary activity, what scientists are calling “extra-textual influence” Marshall, P. D. (2019). Celebrity, Politics, and New Media: An Essay on the Implications of Pandemic Fame and Persona. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. p.3.. Although not every celebrity performance encompasses the sphere of celebrity politics. Journalist and professor Francesco Alberoni identified differentiation between real involvement into political and the “hidden” involvement that stays within popular culture. He extends the idea that celebrities and popular culture in general carry mythic and false reconstructions and versions and help industry or authorities to confuse the audience from seeing their true interests Alberoni, F. (2006 - Originally published in 1962). The powerless `Elite': theory and sociological research on the phenomenon of the stars. p.108. . We can agree with the statement that artists from their performance in pop culture establish cultural norms and sometimes challenge to those norms with the power of political activism. But the term “political celebrity” covers a wide variety of public actors. Darrel West and John Orman identified five categories of political celebrity West, D. and Orman, J. (2002) Celebrity Politics (New Jersey: Prentice Hall). pp. 1-16.:

1. Political “freshman” who use their fame and performance skills to take part in public communication;

2. “Ascribed celebrity” who acquire celebrity status by birth;

3. Elected officials who are seeking for office in order to get prominence;

4. Famed lobbyists and activists who utilize their fame for common good without seeking office;

5. People who achieved fame due to specific incident or tragedy.

Yet, West and Orman's typology defines celebrity activity and doesn't consider the way it operates as a form of political force. Paul `t Hart and Karen Tindall have upgraded this typology by categorizing celebrities by their political action `t Hart, P. and Tindall, K. 2009: Leadership by the famous: celebrity politics in democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.:

1. Celebrity advocates (Angelina Jolie, Bono) who proved their dedication and devotion to global issues;

2. Celebrity endorsers (Beyoncй, Oprah Winfrey) who specifically participate in A-list events like presidential elections and who used their status to endorse candidacy;

3. Celebrity politicians (Arnold Schwarzenegger, Clint Eastwood, Ronald Reagan) who were mostly elected because of their `outsider' status (we can also include Donald Trump). Their status expects from them to not accept compromise and be fearless but most often they become a part of the system;

4. The politician who turned into celebrity (Barak Obama). This type of celebrity is an established politician who used entertainment and social media to popularize their figure.

Here we can see that politicians can also be celebrities. This phenomenon is called “celebrity politician”. The professor and co-author of A Companion to Celebrity (2016) Sean Redmond explained the nature of celebrity politician: “Contemporary politicians are a type of celebrity and they work in the arena of “show business.” Each meaningful, telegenic celebrity politician is styled, coached, scripted, and trained for their life in front of the lens. One can read their journey up the political ladder as a series of auditions for bigger parts, for more air-time, and for a stronger self-centered, goal-oriented brand that voters and corporate sponsors will buy into. The public arenas we find them in, the speeches they give, the dinners they attend, and the advertorial work they do to raise finance and push a policy occur through the mechanisms and practices of celebrity spectacle and commodity consumption.” Redmond, S. (2014) Celebrity and the Media. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 66.

John Street in his work Celebrity Politicians: Popular Culture and Political Representation (2004) claims that there are two main types of such phenomenon, he names them CP1 and CP2 Street, J. (2004). Celebrity politicians: popular culture and political representation. British Journal of Politics and

International Relations, 6, 435-452.. CP1 refers to the politician in the traditional sense of the word - the directly elected representative who collaborates with pop culture celebrities in order to enhance his promises and goals. This type of politician has two origins which are presented in `t Hart and Tindall's typology:

1. An elected politician or candidate who comes from the world of entertainment or sport. This politician trades on this background, popularity and acquired skills to get elected.

2. An elected politician or candidate who enhances his image and message, using celebrities. It includes the usage of joint photo and appearance to link themselves with stars: Barak Obama and dozens of selfies with pop singers; Tony Blair posing with the players of English football team; Junichiro Koizumi, the Japanese prime minister, singing Elvis Presley songs with Tom Cruise. Such politicians also the exploit non-traditional formats or platforms for promotion. Nowadays, besides late-night TV shows, it might be the usage of social networks and the viral content, for example, the appearance in satirical shows like The Simpsons, live broadcasts or blogging. Some politicians adopt the behaviour of celebrity and its techniques: it can be the appearance on the cover of leading fashion magazines, including dramatic interview and glamorous photoshoot.

The second type - CP2 - describes a phenomenon that gained momentum this century. CP2 refers to the entertainer who comments on political issues and seeks to represent will of the people. At the same time, CP2 doesn't seek for elected office. Their action has the form of public statements and it aims to change certain public norms or authorities' decisions. The key elements of CP2 type are:

1. CP2s use their status to speak out on specific issues in order to influence on political outcomes. This includes many stars who participate in charity movements, sign the public petitions, stand for protection of human rights and use the platforms to which they have access to spread their political views. It refers to Ellen DeGeneres who cooperates with wildlife saving programs, charity foundations and flash mobs; Lady Gaga, Elton John Miley Cyrus and many other celebrities who fight for LGBTQ rights.

2. CP2 political activism is taken seriously. As the result, media more focus on their political side, not on professional. Also, it attracts politicians' attention, what may lead to bilateral discussion. The fans of CP2 is willing to support these celebrities' ideas by contributing money to the cause or making other significant gestures.

From this perspective we can see that modern age celebrities more or less pays attention to political issues and might even direct people to particular decisions. However, in accordance with Sean Redmond's quote, real politics and big money destroy any claim to representativeness. This may also happen because the elected politician tends to escape from thorny issues to save the face, what forces him to make irrelevant and superficial statements. It changes the political agenda and makes it more favourable to the rich section of society, who funds politician's campaign.

Also, the celebrity that starts the political journey might not have a clear understanding of how do people live and what do they support to be a representative of citizens. Moreover, besides diversity that celebrity culture spreads into of society, scientists like Graeme Turner assume, that it's just an illusion of democratization. In his article The mass production of celebrity “Celetoids”, reality TV and the “demotic turn” Graeme Turner examines the participation of so called “ordinary” or “DIY” celebrities in democratic processes. He develops the idea that diversity produced by celebrities is not initially democratic: “It is important to remember that celebrity still remains a systematically hierarchical and exclusive category, no matter how much it proliferates. No amount of public participation in game shows, reality TV or DIY celebrity websites will alter the fact that, overall, the media industries still remain in control of the symbolic economy, and that they still attempt to operate this economy in the service of their own interests” Turner, G. (2006) “The mass production of celebrity: `celetoids', reality TV and the `demotic turn.”' International Journal of Cultural Studies, 9 (2): 153-65. p.5.. Nevertheless, he argues that even “ordinary” celebrities have demotic (public; favorable to the people) potential, which they can use to get access to democratic structures without being involved in power - through the loyal community they make. These processes are getting enhanced by the digital media - the cradle of nowadays micro-celebrities. In summary, Turner argues that celebrity politics risks undermining representative democracy and liability.

In defence of celebrity and its politics we can tell that this phenomenon is an unavoidable consequence of social and political changes. In particular, the cult of celebrity politics can be perceived as a result of the transformation of political communication. We cannot deny that the new style of political communication is an expected consequence of digitalization: the extended ways of advertisement and PR, new forms of information sharing, new formats and new media can resonate with people in such power and ways that traditional forms of communication cannot. Such effective tools literally forced politicians to become stars, turning their performances into entertaining spectacles: always dramatic, symbolic, with an aura of constant competition.

Major political and social events that dominated in media in the beginning of the 21st were exhibited in a spectacular way: the 9/11 terror attacks, the Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the meltdown of the global financial systems in 2008, even the continuous Britney Spears saga and aftermath of Michael Jackson's death. The Democratic Party primaries in 2008 became a starting point of the celebrity politics (CP2) and celebrity politicians (CP1) triumph. The primaries starring Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton - the first African-American candidate versus the first female candidate - created a compelling fight of race and gender with unpredictable outcome. Furthermore, having become the presidential candidate, Obama inspired and mobilized celebrities from different cultural spheres to take part in his campaign, including Hip-Hop community. The elements of his campaign had exceptional results: he attracted enormous number of subscribers in social media; videos and songs in support of him went viral; his supporters were proud to decorate themselves with Obama's official merch, including celebrities. As we know, this proved to be a successful strategy as Obama took the office. In 2016 Hillary Clinton was playing by the same rules, including part with Hip-Hop and Beyoncй in inspiring T-shirt, and didn't make it. Can celebrity endorsements really affect the outcomes, and in which cases the army or celebrity supporters can help? Let us now focus on this question.

1.2 The Impact of Celebrity Endorsements on Voter's Behaviour

The massive extension of celebrity culture made scholars to ask how such phenomenon affects political practice. Few academic studies have revealed the link between celebrity endorsements and voter behaviour. The main impediment that complicates the measure of an impact of celebrity endorsements is the impossibility to establish the correlation between certain celebrity's support and the elections outcome. Also, it's almost impossible to reveal all aspects that influence the voters' choice. Measures based on interest group membership or even on focus group might be affected by political preferences that are stronger than love to a particular celebrity. However, there are some researches that can serve as the basis for further studies of celebrity endorsement's influence on voters' behavior.

In their research professors Erica Austin, Rebecca Van de Vord, Bruce Pinkleton, and Evan Epstein Austin, E. W., Van de Vord, R., Pinkleton, B. E., & Epstein, E. (2008). Celebrity endorsements and their potential to motivate young voters. Mass Communication and Society, 11, 420-36. found that celebrity spokespeople motivate voters and increase the level of voters' self-efficacy. Their research considers the way how “Get Out to Vote” campaigns with celebrities may persuade young electorate to vote. Natalie Wood and Kenneth Herbst found out that Democratic voters are more receptive to celebrities that encourage voter turnout Wood, N. T., & Herbst, K. C. (2007). Political star power and political parties: Does celebrity endorsement win first-time votes? Journal of Political Marketing 6, 141-158.. Their study also claims that collaboration with celebrities encourages voter turnout. Another recent research by Anthony Nownes examined how celebrity endorsements affect voters' emotions. Nownes determined that celebrity endorsements decrease such negative voters' emotions as anger and anxiety Nownes, A. J. (2017). Celebrity endorsements and voter emotions: Evidence from two experiments. American Politics Research, 45, 648-672.. Professor Nick Couldry and his colleagues suggested that celebrity endorsements mostly effect the least politically engaged Couldry, N., Livingstone, S. and Markham, T. (2010) Media Consumption and Public Engagement: Beyond the Presumption of Attention.. These people present themselves as `media savvy', and therefore are skeptical readers of culture. Such conclusions need to be treated with care. Nevertheless, they might help us to understand how individual citizens respond to their representatives.

Political science professor David Jackson investigated the impact of celebrities' endorsements on the attitudes of young Americans Jackson, D. J. (2008). Selling politics: The impact of celebrities' political beliefs on young Americans. Journal of Political Marketing, 6, 67-83.. For his research Selling politics: The impact of celebrities' political beliefs on young Americans (2008) he surveyed the students of political science program in 1997 and 1998. The survey included a quasi-experiment that implied the isolation of celebrity political statements' impact on the respondents' political beliefs. Jackson measured the potential political influence of 3 celebrities that were popular in the 1990s: Zack De La Rocha, political activist and front-man of hard-rock band Rage Against the Machine; country star and philanthropist Tim McGraw, who presented the image of a simple and soulful country boy; basketball legend Michael Jordan that turned out to be the most universally famous celebrity in the survey, although he is not known for politically active. As we can see, each celebrity represented not only a music preference, but also a certain lifestyle. The respondents were asked to point the statements with which they agree, in so doing, half of the statements had the celebrity's name attached and the other half of statements was anonymous. The results of Jackson's research showed that celebrity's name under the statement influences the probability of respondent to select one. For example, Zack De La Rocha claims that democracy in the US is “a sham”, and young fans of rock music are more likely to agree with him. The same behavior had young country fans. The results of Michael Jordan's questions were difficult to interpret. Firstly, Jordan's question contained the controversial situation with working conditions in Nike factories and Michael Jordan's blurred opinion about it (he urged people not to worry about it). Secondly, he was the only celebrity from the sample, whose beliefs were limited by conditions of a contract with Nike, while the other celebrities were not presented as those who financially benefit from their beliefs. That's why political forces need to be highly selective, collaborating with celebrity endorsement.

Craig Garthwaite and Timothy Moore in their work studied the political influence of one of the most recognizable public figures in USA - TV star Oprah Winfrey Garthwaite, C. and Moore, T. (2008) `The role of celebrity endorsements in politics: Oprah, Obama and the 2008 democratic primary'.. Winfrey in known for her incredibly loyal audience and her talent to make products commercially successful. The authors adduce the evidence of her influence to the 2008 Democratic presidential primary by measuring subscriptions to Oprah's magazine and sales of books she recommends. The research suggests that her endorsement increased over all voter turnout and Obama's votes, bringing about 1 million additional votes to him. The authors analyzed the sales figures of books that have been mentioned in her book club: Love in the Time of Cholera by Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy. Immediately after Oprah selected them the sales of these 2 books increased more than 100 times. This fact let the authors suggest that such influence on consumer decisions may also translate to politics. Garthwaite and Moore bring another fact: according to Pew Research Center, 23% of Democrats admitted that they would vote for Barack Obama if Winfrey endorse him Ibid.. The authors also assessed financial contributions to Obama's campaign. They find that after the Oprah's endorsement contributions significantly increased in counties with high sales of Oprah Magazine. In general, approximately 16 million people read each issue of Oprah Magazine. Besides that, 8 million people watch Winfrey's daily show every day, and, being broadcasting on TV since 1986, Oprah had never before endorsed a presidential candidate, what right away increases the importance of this message.

Thus, we can conclude that the most ideal celebrities for making endorsements are at the height of their popularity, oriented on young people Democrats, who are not locked into commercial contracts with companies that have questionable reputation. Their political statements are sincere or at least don't have an obvious profit motive. Also, according to Couldry et al., these celebrities should make their message understandable and convincing to the apolitical people. In the next chapter we will compare the Hip-Hop artists, who endorsed political candidates and beliefs, with this theoretical model of successful endorser.

2. The Hip-Hop Artists Endorsement of Political Candidates

2.1 The Relationships Between Hip-Hop Artists and the Authorities

There are many examples of using Rap music to discuss discrimination, poverty, police brutality and other social ills. I'll examine Rap songs that are socially relevant and have political context - message. The professor Robert Walker in his 1976 dissertation on Black music and society established criteria of the message songs. He asserts that political songs symbolize solidarity. Walker, Robert G. (1975). Society and Soul. PhD. Dissertation: Stanford University. p. 7. Walker also used three criteria to define message songs: these are songs with implicit or explicit ethnic symbols; with references on social class problems, and songs that refer to groups other than ethnic or social class. Walker, Robert G. (1975). Society and Soul. PhD. Dissertation: Stanford University. p. 39. Politically oriented songs have to contain references to political symbols: political leaders, offices or positions. In this research I'm interested in African-American political attitudes in Black Rap.

The 1970s-1980s ushered in poverty for many African-Americans, despite gains, received during the Civil Rights Era. At that time, instead of having to fight the racism and segregation, African-Americans had the task of combating an indescribable form of poverty and popular discrimination. Hill-Collins, Patricia. (2006). From Black Power to Hip Hop. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania. Temple

University Press. During this era society had difficulties with acceptance of its connection with Black discrimination. There was an argument that equality now officially exists through the enactment of the civil rights acts. But those who experienced poverty had a different viewpoint on their economic conditions. The song that has often been labelled as the first political Rap song was The Message (1982) by group Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. The Message described the reality for many African-Americans in urban communities. It's asserted:

“Got no money to move out, I guess I got no choice

Rats in the front room, roaches in the back…

…You'll grow in the ghetto livin' second-rate

And your eyes will sing a song called deep hate

The places you play and where you stay

Looks like a great big alleyway” Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. (1982). The Message. On The Message. Kobalt Music Publishing Ltd.

In this song the artists describe the effects of living in impoverished neighbourhoods and the impact of such conditions on people's mental state.

The 1980s fell on the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Some economists and political scientists call Reagan a leading force in national US politics for a quarter century. American journalist Lou Cannon wrote about Reagan: “He had an impact because he had deep convictions, star power, and political skills - and also because he arrived on the scene when the winds of change were blowing in the direction of conservatives.” Although he decreased the level of inflation, unemployment, and proclaimed a tough war against drugs and criminality, his policy had a negative impact on African-Americans life. He reduced the role of the state in the economy, allocating less financial assistance to the poor. Hayward, Steven F. (2009). The Age of Reagan: The Conservative Counterrevolution. p. 146-148. Moreover, during Reagan's term took place the initiation of crack cocaine into neighborhoods. Also, some writers have alleged that the United States Central Intelligence Agency was involved in cocaine trafficking during the 1980s, what still remains controversial. In 1986, Iran-Contra scandal, Reagan administration says, that some individual Nicaraguan Contras may have involved in drug traffic, but the administration denies its involvement in it. Staff, A. (1986, April 17). US Concedes Contras Linked to Drugs, But Denies Leadership Involved. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://apnews.com/bb7394e75625a363b8c0bf9b0d6cf969 This unconfirmed information has caused anger among many Rap artists. In 1989 rapper Too Short released song Cusswords with lines:

“Ronald Reagan came up to me and said, “Do you have the answer

To the U.S. economy and a cure for cancer?”

I said, “What are you doing in the White House if you're not selling cocaine?

Ask your wife, Nancy Reagan, I know she'll spit that game” Too Short. (1989). Cusswords. On Life Is...Too Short. Jive Records.

Some Rap artists not only blame Reagan in crack epidemic, but also are outraged by his enormous effect on the justice system. Reagan toughened the penalty for people involved in drug trafficking. Group Wu-Tang Clan even compared Reagan with Satan:

“My occupation to stop the inauguration of Satan

Some claim that it was Reagan, so I come to slay men” Wu-Tang Clan. (1997). Impossible. On Wu-Tang Forever. RCA Records

The artists, who were born or were teens at Reagan term, refer to this period as well. Jay-Z (born in 1969) in his song Blue Magic referred to the Iran-Contra affair:

“Blame Reagan for making me into a monster

Blame Oliver North and Iran-Contra

I ran contraband that they sponsored

Before this rhymin' stuff we was in concert” Jay-Z. (2007). Blue Magic. On American Gangster. Roc-A-Fella Records.

On David Letterman's TV show Jay-Z told, that during the Reaganomics drugs infiltrated the neighborhoods and it was everywhere. “Like you could smell the stench in the hallways. You know, it was just, we were overcome with this thing and it was fast money and it was, you know, it's inescapable.” Born in 1987, Kendrick Lamar in his song Ab-Soul's Outro on album Section. 80 calls his generation the “Section 80's babies”. On this album he also has a song, dedicated to Reagan - Ronald Reagan Era (His Evils) Kendrick Lamar. (2011). Ronald Reagan Era (His Evils). On Section. 80. Top Dawg., where he compares nowadays youth with tree leaves, that can be easily blown away by gunfire. The number of rappers, who mentioned Ronald Reagan's policy, includes Kanye West, Pusha T, Scarface, YG, Wale.

Many poor people, especially African-Americans, in disadvantaged districts notices the pressure increase from police officers and the whole justice system. Rap band N.W.A. responded to this process with song Fuck tha Police (1988). The song constitutes a contestation of officers' prerogative of violence. Fuck tha Police is a fantasy, where the N.W.A. members play the role of judge, sentencing a policeman. Rappers are using the flaws of judicial system to prove, that the police are focused only on the fight against the young black minority, accusing them of drug trafficking and murders. At the end, a fictional court pronounces a guilty verdict on the policeman, who is denying these accusations:

“The verdict:

The jury has found you guilty of being a redneck

White bread, chickenshit motherfucker

Wait, that's a lie! That's a goddamn lie!

Get him out of here!

I want justice!

Get him the fuck out my face!

I want justice!

Out, right now!

Fuck you, you black motherfuckers!” N.W.A. (1988). Fuck tha Police. On Straight Outta Compton. Ruthless/Priority.

Such attacks towards the authorities aroused resentment among the “prosperous” stratum of the population. The October 1990 New York Times wrote: “Gangsta rap reveals the pathology of its creators as well as their skill. It is the music of angry young men obsessed with proving their manhood through combat and sex, and they sound more experienced and comfortable with combat.” These types of people seem far more interested in being entertained by the representations of horrible conditions, than in changing them. Thus, Gangsta rappers of 1990s represented the “street reporters”, disclosing what street life is like.

In the early 1990s, the New York (East Coast) scene began to grow rapidly. Because of this, the confrontation of East and West coasts began. On the western main label was Death Row Records, founded by Dr. Dre and Shug Knight, on which were recorded Tupac Shakur, Snoop Dogg, Dr. Dre. East Coast was represented by the label P. Diddy Bad Boy Records, his artists were The Notorious B.I.G., Kool G Rap, and others. Certain elements of gangsta rap were borrowed by the white band Beastie Boys. The competition of Western and Eastern rappers first resulted in a constant exchange of injections and insults in the lyrics of the tracks, and then in an open street war, so the criminal situation migrated from streets to music.

The 1990s during the Bill Clinton administration the “crime-fighting” policy became even more strict. In 1993, President Clinton adopted the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, that included expanded use of the death penalty and life sentences, 100000 more police on the streets, and cancellation of federal funding for inmate education.Taylor, K. (2017). How We Get Free: Black Feminism and the Combahee River Collective. Haymarket Books. p. 63. The bill assumed an increase in prisoners, so it included 10 billion dollars in allocations to build more prisons. It's interesting that Clinton lobbied for the bill in the same church in Memphis, where Martin Luther King Jr. gave his last speech the day before he was assassinated. During speech he said: “I fought to stop white people from being so filled with hate that they would wreak violence on black people. I did not fight for the right of black people to murder other black people with reckless abandonment.” The African-American writer and academic Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor called this commented this speech as: “It was an awful statement, devoid of any facts or historical context of how public policy had nurtured urban divestment for the better part of the twentieth century and by doing so had actually encouraged crime, violence, and drug use. This was the prevailing logic of the time.” Taylor, K. (2017). How We Get Free: Black Feminism and the Combahee River Collective. Haymarket Books. p. 64. African-Americans living in drug addicted communities were desperate for help, because streets filled with police didn't solve the real issues of crime and poverty in Black communities. In 1995, the next year after the law was signed, rapper 2Pac released the song It Ain't Easy, in which he reacted to the consequences of this law:

“Bill Clinton, can you recognize a nigga representin'

Doin' twenty to life in San Quentin?” 2Pac. (1995). It Ain't Easy. On Me Against the World. Interscope Records.

Here 2Pac mentions San Quentin State Prison, which is oldest prison in California. He is also asking himself: “Will I see the penitentiary or will I stay free?”, unveiling the uncertainty of many people's destiny and the unstable situation in his community. 2Pac and his friends repeatedly had problems with law, so the huge part of his music is dedicated to legal issues and the social situation in Black community. In his song Changes (recorded in 1992) 2Pac wonders about the meaning of life, seeing there's no changes for the situation:

“I see no changes, wake up in the morning and I ask myself

Is life worth livin'? Should I blast myself?

I'm tired of bein' poor and, even worse, I'm black

My stomach hurts so I'm lookin' for a purse to snatch

Cops give a damn about a negro

Pull the trigger, kill a nigga, he's a hero

“Give the crack to the kids, who the hell cares?

One less hungry mouth on the welfare!” 2Pac. (1998). Changes. Interscope Records.

At that time for many poor African-Americans police and unwarranted brutality were synonymous. The relationships between blacks and police have worsened after the case of Rodney King in April 1992. King was severally beaten by police officers. The incident was covered by news media around the world and caused the riots on streets. 2Pac, Dr. Dre, Ice Cube and some nowadays rappers spoke up about this accident in their songs. Police brutality had a tremendous impact on the Black community, creating a separate niche in Rap music.

It's believed, that Gangsta Rap era was ended in 1997, after the two kings of this genre, representatives of West and East coasts, The Notorius B.I.G. and 2Pac passed away. Many famous rappers, including the patriarch of the genre Ice-T, called to stop the violence, and by the beginning of the 2000s the murders had stopped.

The new Rap music of 2000s overcame the prevalence of social problems. Rappers started sharing stories of their individual accomplishments, filling song lyrics with “rags to riches” theme. Personal replaced social. Rap began to be oriented to a broad “mainstream” audience, not only to suffering minority. Hip-Hop became a global phenomenon with placements on Billboard Top and welfare ratings. Black Rap involved more and more White listeners, so the songs' content shifted to common discourses that are understandable to everyone, for example, partying, sex, and personal success. It undermined the connection to Black Americans - the community that birthed Hip-Hop. However, Black youth started enrolling in colleges and attaining more wealth, in comparison with the earlier generations. In the face of world success there was pressure to relate to multiple audiences. Some Rap artists became controlled by music corporations that made them successful. Popular songs were promoting a “hustler spirit” - the desire to get rich and thrive at all costs. The debut album of popular at that time rapper 50 Cent got name Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2003). One of the singles from this album In Da Club has the hook: